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		<title>Sign the petition in support of the Canadian Equal Parenting Bill C-422</title>
		<link>http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/2010/04/16/6/</link>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 16 Apr 2010 07:57:06 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Father Knowledge Centre</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Canada]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Residence alternee]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Shared parenting]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Verblijfsco-ouderschap]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Bill C-422]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Equal Parenting Bill]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Law reform]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Petition]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[SUPPORT CANADIAN BILL C-422 EQUAL PARENTING Canada &#8211; Causes – April 2010 Sign this petition at the bottom of: http://media.causes.com/ribbon/788440 We are attempting to get Canadians to sign this petition in support of reforming The Divorce Act by passing private members Bill C-422 and implementing the default position of rebuttable for equal shared parenting in&#160;&#8230; <a href="http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/2010/04/16/6/">Read&#160;more</a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=sharedparenting.wordpress.com&amp;blog=1566479&amp;post=54&amp;subd=sharedparenting&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>SUPPORT CANADIAN BILL C-422 EQUAL PARENTING</strong><br />
Canada &#8211; Causes – April 2010</p>
<p>Sign this petition at the bottom of: <a href="http://media.causes.com/ribbon/788440">http://media.causes.com/ribbon/788440</a></p>
<p>We are attempting to get Canadians to sign this petition in support of reforming The Divorce Act by passing private members Bill C-422 and implementing the default position of rebuttable for equal shared parenting in the Canadian family courts.</p>
<p>Bill C-422 would bring Canadian legislation in line with what the best research says about the best interests of children. With limited exceptions, children generally demonstrate superior outcomes when both parents – Mom and Dad – are actively involved in their children&#8217;s lives, even if the parents divorce or separate. That is why Bill C-422 would direct courts to make equal shared parenting the presumptive arrangement in the best interests of the child, except in proven cases of abuse or neglect.</p>
<p>We, as Canadians, fight everyday to have equal rights and yet when we are involved in a separation or divorce, the fathers rights are taken away by a stranger whom has no real grasp on the situation and what has taken place in the home. Instead of a child being able to have the love and support from both sides of the family, we create a war with the child being stuck in the middle; being torn between the two and used in parental alienation to get back at the other parent.</p>
<p>Now it is not forgotten that there are deadbeat fathers out there but we seem to forget there are also deadbeat mothers, and we cannot judge and take away the rights of all because one has ruined it.</p>
<p>All of you out there know at least one good father that has had their rights taken away and been told they will only have every other weekend and child support. Fathers are being told that they will not have an active roll in their child’s life.</p>
<p>With that being said, I ask you to please support Bill C-422 equal shared parenting and PLEASE sign the petition at: <a href="http://media.causes.com/ribbon/788440">http://media.causes.com/ribbon/788440</a>.</p>
<p>Kindest regards,<br />
Bryan Kennedy<br />
Fathers Have Rights Too<br />
<a href="http://rightsfordads.wordpress.com/">http://rightsfordads.wordpress.com/</a></p>
<p>Also you can email your local MP and ask them to support the motion. The more support it receives from the ground level the better the chance.</p>
<p>Another good site to visit is <a href="http://www.crosscanadarun4thechildren.com/">www.crosscanadarun4thechildren.com</a><br />
David Nash has organized a cross Canada marathon campaign to raise awareness for the disenfranchised children. He has called his cross Canada run, <strong>&#8220;For The Sake Of The Children &#8211; Marathon Of Hope&#8221;</strong></p>
<p><strong>Canadian Equal Parenting Council</strong> is an excellent resource too!<br />
<a href="http://www.canadianepc.com/">http://www.canadianepc.com</a></p>
<p>&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;</p>
<p>Signed by <strong></strong> Peter Tromp (Father Knowledge Centre) on Apr 29, 2010 (<a title="Link to this signature" href="http://www.ipetitions.com/petition/rightsfordads/signatures?page=3">142):</a></p>
<p><a href="http://www.ipetitions.com/petition/rightsfordads/signatures?page=3">http://www.ipetitions.com/petition/rightsfordads/signatures?page=3#</a></p>
<p><strong>Comment:</strong> Shared parenting and alternating residence arrangements are in the best interests of divorcechildren. Research shows: &#8220;Children need both parents.&#8221; See: <a href="http://fkce.wordpress.com/">http://fkce.wordpress.com</a></p>
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		<title>Évaluation de l’instauration de l’hébergement égalitaire dans le cadre d’un divorce ou d’une séparation en Belgique (Université de Liège, Langue Francais)</title>
		<link>http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/2010/03/02/10/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 02 Mar 2010 09:25:58 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Father Knowledge Centre</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Alternating care and residence]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgium]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Beurtelingse huisvesting]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Bilocatie]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Co-ouderschap]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Coparenting]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Divorce]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Doppelresidenz]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Droit de la famille]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Equal parenting]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Familienrecht]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Familierecht]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Family Law]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Gelijkwaardig ouderschap]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Joint legal custody]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Joint physical custody]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ouderschapsplan]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Parenting plan]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Post-divorce parenting arrangement]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Residence alternee]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Scheidung]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Schieding]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Shared parenting]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Verblijfsco-ouderschap]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Angèle César]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgique]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Belgische wet op het gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf van kinderen]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Charline Waxweiler]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Co-ouderschap na scheiding]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Dounia Chaoui]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Evaluation]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[L’hébergement égalitaire]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Marie‐Thérèse Casman]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Melchior Wathelet]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Separation]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Verblijfsregeling voor de kinderen na een echtscheiding]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Verblijfsregeling voor de kinderen na een scheiding]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Wet op het gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf van kinderen]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Résumé : Évaluation de l’instauration de l’hébergement égalitaire dans le cadre d’un divorce ou d’une séparation Sous la coordination de : Marie‐Thérèse Casman Chargée de recherche : Angèle César Avec la collaboration de : Dounia Chaoui Charline Waxweiler Recherche commanditée par le Secrétariat d’État Belgique à la Politique des Familles Belgique, Université de Liège, Panel&#160;&#8230; <a href="http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/2010/03/02/10/">Read&#160;more</a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=sharedparenting.wordpress.com&amp;blog=1566479&amp;post=60&amp;subd=sharedparenting&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<h2>Résumé : Évaluation de l’instauration de l’hébergement égalitaire dans le cadre d’un divorce ou d’une séparation</h2>
<p>Sous la coordination de : Marie‐Thérèse Casman<br />
Chargée de recherche : Angèle César</p>
<p>Avec la collaboration de :<br />
Dounia Chaoui<br />
Charline Waxweiler</p>
<p>Recherche commanditée par le Secrétariat d’État Belgique à la Politique des Familles</p>
<p>Belgique, Université de Liège, Panel Démographie Familiale, 2010</p>
<h2 style="text-align:right;">Tables des matières</h2>
<h5 style="text-align:right;">Objectif de la recherche</h5>
<h5 style="text-align:right;">Méthodologie</h5>
<h5 style="text-align:right;">Les Résultats</h5>
<p style="text-align:right;"><strong><em>La loi de 2006</em></strong></p>
<ul style="text-align:right;">
<li>Ce que les professionnels et les parents retiennent de la nouvelle législation.</li>
<li>Implications de la loi de 2006</li>
<li>Ce que pensent les professionnels de la loi de 2006 et de l’hébergement alterné.</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:right;">Les intervenants du droit familial</p>
<ul style="text-align:right;">
<li>Le rôle des avocats</li>
<li>Le rôle du Juge et ses motivations</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:right;"><strong><em>Les mesures d’instruction</em></strong></p>
<ul style="text-align:right;">
<li>L’expertise</li>
<li>Les études civiles sociales</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:right;"><strong><em>Le point de vue des juges</em></strong></p>
<p style="text-align:right;"><strong><em>Le point de vue des assistants de justice</em></strong></p>
<ul style="text-align:right;">
<li>Les enquêtes de police</li>
<li>Les auditions d’enfants réalisées par un psychologue</li>
<li>Conclusion</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:right;"><em><strong>La médiation</strong></em><br />
<em><strong>La place de l’enfant</strong></em><br />
<strong><em>Les motivations parentales à l’hébergement des enfants</em></strong><br />
<strong><em>Le profil des parents pratiquant l’hébergement alterné</em></strong><br />
<strong><em>Les vécu des parents quant à la séparation/ divorce et quant au mode d’hébergement mis en place</em></strong><br />
<strong><em>Les modes d’organisation concrets</em></strong></p>
<ul style="text-align:right;">
<li>Les rythmes d’alternance</li>
<li>Frais extraordinaires et loisirs</li>
<li>Le choix du domicile de l’enfant</li>
<li>Mutualité et remboursement des soins de santé</li>
<li>Les allocations familiales</li>
<li>Les parts contributives</li>
<li>Le Logement</li>
<li>La consommation d’eau</li>
<li>Autres primes, aides, prêts et réductions</li>
<li>Le transfert des enfants</li>
<li>Garde enfant malade</li>
<li>Fiscalité</li>
<li>Vêtements et transport des affaires</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:right;"><strong><em>L’entente parentale</em></strong></p>
<h5 style="text-align:right;">Pistes de recommandation</h5>
<ul style="text-align:right;">
<li>Le rapport à la médiation</li>
<li>La question de la part contributive</li>
<li>Collaboration, information et formation entre les intervenants du droit de la famille</li>
<li>Accompagnement du justiciable</li>
<li>Un projet, le Tribunal des Familles</li>
<li>Rencontres pluridisciplinaires</li>
<li>Adaptation des systèmes administratifs et scolaires</li>
<li style="text-align:right;">Création d’un guide destiné aux parents</li>
</ul>
<h2 style="text-align:left;">Objectif de la recherche</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’objectif de cette étude visait à analyser les différents modes d’organisation d’hébergement, alterné de type égalitaire ou non, mis en place par les familles, ainsi que les diverses « stratégies » ou arrangements entre les parents, et éventuellement leurs nouvelles familles respectives, leur permettant de gérer les contraintes financières et pratiques spécifiques au mode d’hébergement mis en place.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il est également question d’établir les premiers constats après l’instauration de cette loi en juillet 2006, de voir qu’elles étaient ses réelles implications au niveau de la pratique des professionnels et de recueillir l’avis de ces derniers à son sujet.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il s’agit aussi de faire le point sur les avantages et les inconvénients de cette nouvelle législation, tels qu’ils sont vécus par les différents acteurs c’est‐à‐dire tant les parents, que les professionnels qui l’appliquent ou contribuent à l’appliquer : les juges, les médiateurs familiaux, les intervenants sociaux.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ajoutons également que ce nouveau mode de partage de l’hébergement amène également des questions administratives tout à fait inédites : domiciliation de l’enfant, rapports avec l’école, fiscalité, carte SIS, etc.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">En outre, il s’agit également d’apporter des éléments de connaissance sur le profil des parents pratiquant ce mode de garde, en termes de statut socioprofessionnel et de composition familiale notamment.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il s’agit, enfin, de dégager différentes propositions d’amélioration permettant d’une part une meilleure adéquation du mode d’hébergement égalitaire à la situation des parents séparés via des actions publiques de modifications législatives et d’autre part une organisation performante des démarches administratives, et des mesures d’accompagnement des familles et de soutien à la parentalité.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Méthodologie</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">Afin de nourrir cette recherche, plusieurs outils de recueil de données ont été mobilisés : la synthèse documentaire, ainsi que l’analyse de données qualitatives et quantitatives. L’obtention des données qualitatives s’est fait au moyen d’entretiens semi‐directifs réalisés auprès de deux types d’acteurs. D’une part, des experts et professionnels qui à divers titres, sont en contact avec des parents en rupture et, par conséquent, la question de l’hébergement des enfants. D’autre part, des parents séparés ayant opté pour un mode d’hébergement de leurs enfants impliquant pour la moitié d’entre eux un partage égalitaire du temps. Les données quantitatives découlent de l’utilisation d’un questionnaire comprenant une quarantaine d’items portant sur l’hébergement des enfants et le contexte de la séparation parentale. Le volet qualitatif a été réalisé sur base de guides d’entretien spécifique au public rencontré (expert ou parents).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les deux volets, qualitatifs et quantitatifs, ont respectivement concerné 109 et 197 individus. Précisément, l’échantillon des professionnels était d’abord composé de Juges travaillant pour la Justice de Paix, le Tribunal des Référés, le Tribunal de la Jeunesse, la Cour d’appel, et le Tribunal de Première Instance, et ce, dans les villes de Charleroi, Bruxelles, Liège, ainsi qu’en Flandre Occidentale. Deuxièmement, les différents types de médiateurs familiaux ont également été rencontrés, plus précisément, des avocats médiateurs, des notaires médiateurs et des médiateurs dits « tiers », psychologue de formation ou possédant une toute autre profession d’orientation plutôt psychosociale. Dans ce cas, les rencontres ont eu lieu dans les villes d’Hasselt, de Charleroi, de Liège, de Namur et de Bruxelles. Ensuite, différents avocats ont témoigné de leurs expériences professionnelles en matière d’hébergement des enfants. Tous étaient spécialisés en matière de droit familial. Ils exerçaient à Liège, à Namur et à Bruxelles. Enfin, un agent mutualiste, un fiscaliste, une juriste en planning familial, un pédopsychiatre expert auprès des tribunaux ainsi que trois assistants de justice ont participé à cette recherche. Cet échantillon de professionnel concernait en tout trente‐sept personnes. L’échantillon des parents était, quant à lui, divisé en deux parties. La première concernait 86 parents parmi lesquels 44 pratiquaient, ou avait pratiqué, l’hébergement alterné de type égalitaire. Les 42 parents restant se trouvaient dans un système de partage inégalitaire, l’hébergement principal étant dans la majeure partie des cas, attribué à la mère. La seconde partie de cet échantillon est constituée des 197 répondants au questionnaire, parmi eux, 124 francophones et 73 néerlandophones. Pour 43% d’entre eux, c’est un hébergement égalitaire qui a été mis en place. Ces deux échantillons de parents, sont principalement composés de femmes puisqu’elles sont 59 à avoir accepté un entretien et 134 à avoir répondu au questionnaire. Les deux échantillons étaient majoritairement constitués d’employés, un certain nombre d’entre eux étaient indépendants alors que seule une minorité parmi eux était demandeur d’emploi.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’analyse des données qualitatives a consisté en une analyse thématique.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’analyse des données quantitatives s’est faite sur base du calcul des fréquences et des pourcentages.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ensuite, dernier aspect de cette méthodologie, un focus group a été organisé. Les résultats de l’analyse qualitative des entretiens ainsi que les données issues de l’enquête quantitative ont été présentés lors d’un focus group à des professionnels fréquemment amenés à travailler avec ces matières familiales. Ce focus group était composé d’un psychologue médiateur et expert pour les tribunaux, d’une criminologue de formation, chercheuse à l’université de Liège et auteur d’un ouvrage : « garde alternée : égalité des parents et intérêt de l’enfant enfin rencontrés ? », d’un responsable du service d’étude du « Gezinsbond », licencié en sciences politiques et sociales auteur d’une recherche en sociologie de la famille sur l’attitude des magistrats face aux situations de non‐représentation d’enfant, d’une responsable du service étude de la Ligue des familles, d’une juge de la jeunesse à Liège, d’une juriste de la FAPéO, anciennement avocate, d’une chercheuse et formatrice à l’université des femmes, d’un responsable de la fondation Françoise Dolto, et enfin, d’un avocat spécialisé en droit de la famille.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La confrontation de nos résultats à leurs pratiques nous a permis d’étayer notre rapport et d’élaborer différentes pistes de recommandation.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Les Résultats</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>La loi de 2006</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Ce que les professionnels et les parents retiennent de la nouvelle législation. </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La primauté de l’accord est le premier élément souligné par les professionnels de notre échantillon. Nous avons pu constater que bien que la loi donne la possibilité au juge de refuser l’accord des parents, cette situation ne se présente que très rarement, voire jamais. Cette possibilité nous a été décrite comme étant «un cas d’école ». Certains professionnels tendraient alors à considérer que les parents sont les meilleurs « juges » de la situation.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il nous semblait intéressant de nous pencher plus précisément sur cette notion d’accord. Comme cela vient d’être abordé, l’accord doit primer. L’ensemble des professionnels constate également que le nombre de parents se présentant devant les tribunaux avec un accord a considérablement augmenté. Différents éléments peuvent expliquer ce constat.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Tout d’abord, cette augmentation pourrait être attribuée au contexte familial actuel. Effectivement, qu’il y ait séparation ou non, une plus grande démocratisation a pris place dans les relations familiales.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">On peut également y voir l’influence de la nouvelle législation en matière de divorce puisque la loi de 2007 aboutit à la suppression du divorce pour faute et à la promotion du divorce à l’amiable. Il nous semble cependant qu’à ce sujet une dérive soit possible. Effectivement, lorsque nous avons interrogé les parents, nous avons recueilli les témoignages de mères essentiellement, qui nous décrivaient des divorces conflictuels, des conventions signées sous la menace, des manipulations dont elles n’avaient pas eu conscience immédiatement, etc. Tous ces divorces sont cependant passés aux yeux de la Loi, des tribunaux, comme étant des divorces « à l’amiable ». Au moment où les parents se présentent devant la justice avec un accord, la dynamique propre du couple ayant mené à cet accord reste totalement inconnue. Effectivement, dans ces situations, aucune investigation n’est menée. Le risque est alors grand que la parole du plus fort ne l’emporte sans que la justice ne s’en aperçoive. Derrière ce constat se pose la question suivante : est‐ce bien le rôle du tribunal d’intervenir dans pareille situation ? La question reste ouverte.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le second élément souligné par les professionnels est le fait que l’hébergement égalitaire doit être examiné de manière prioritaire. Il semble donc assez clair que l’hébergement alterné ne va pas être appliquée à tout va, de manière systématique. Dans cet état d’esprit, les juges rencontrés nous ont décrit ce texte de loi comme étant plutôt une recommandation qu’une réelle contrainte. Il apparaît cependant qu’il existerait quelques différences entre les magistrats lorsqu’il s’agit d’appliquer la loi, nous y reviendrons.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le troisième élément retenu par les professionnels est le fait que le législateur, de par la Loi de 2006, pose l’égalité parentale en principe.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Tout d’abord, il convient de faire la différence entre équivalence et égalité. Effectivement, les parents sont égaux en droit par rapport à leurs enfants, cela ne suppose cependant pas qu’ils soient identiques. C’est justement parce qu’ils sont différents que l’enfant aura besoin de conserver un lien avec ses parents, tout du moins dans la majeure partie des cas.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Lorsque les professionnels abordent cette question de l’égalité parentale, ils évoquent la répartition des tâches relatives aux soins et à l’éducation des enfants. A ce niveau, ils constatent une augmentation du nombre de ce qu’on appelle les nouveaux pères, ces deniers étant cependant encore minoritaires.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans notre échantillon de parents, ce sont encore généralement les mères qui s’occupent principalement des enfants (soins, transport, médecin,&#8230;) et des tâches ménagères.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons pu constater que, parmi notre échantillon, les parents qui vivaient bien l’hébergement alterné de leurs enfants étaient souvent ceux qui s’occupaient à deux de leurs enfants avant la séparation. D’après les entretiens que nous avons menés, hébergement alterné ou pas, le choix d’hébergement vient en continuité du système qui était mis en place du temps du couple, bien que cela n’ai pas été confirmé par le volet quantitatif. Par contre, dans les familles où la répartition des tâches était inégale, ce principe d’égalité est, nous a‐t‐on dit, difficile à accepter. Certains de ces parents s’opposent à cette loi dans le sens où ils la vivent comme un système censé être « bon pour tous », mais néanmoins « pas bon pour eux » et donc inadapté à leur réalité. Pour beaucoup, privilégier un mode d’hébergement par rapport à un autre ne leur paraît pas justifié en regard de la multitude des situations et de l’aspect non généralisable de ce qui détermine le bien‐être et l’intérêt de l’enfant.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Lorsqu’on s’attache plus précisément à la manière dont les pères rencontrés ont vécu la nouvelle législation, on s’aperçoit que l’instauration de la loi les a amenés à oser demander l’hébergement égalitaire.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">D’après les professionnels, une certaine différence semble être constatée en fonction des catégories sociales. Il semblerait que dans les familles ayant un faible niveau socio‐culturel, la mère tende plus fréquemment à être considérée comme ayant un rôle plus important que le père vis‐à‐vis de l’enfant.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Implications de la loi de 2006 </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les professionnels considèrent que l’instauration de ce texte de loi a eu de nombreux impacts.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Tout d’abord, le paysage juridique est considéré comme ayant fortement changé. Avocats et juges nous expliquent que là où avant il fallait plaider en faveur de l’hébergement égalitaire, il est désormais nécessaire de plaider en sa défaveur si on souhaite qu’il ne soit pas appliqué.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pour certains, cette loi a d’ailleurs un impact négatif sur la dynamique judiciaire dans le sens où elle amène une des parties, voir les deux, à faire la preuve des côtés négatifs de l’autre parent si elle veut s’opposer à son projet d’hébergement alterné. Il semble cependant que cette dynamique existait déjà, bien avant l2006.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’autre conséquence importante de l’instauration de la loi de 2006 est le fait que le nombre de demandes d’hébergement n’a fait qu’augmenter. Cette augmentation, les magistrats l’expliquent par deux éléments.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Tout d’abord, avant juillet 2006, de nombreux pères n’imaginaient pas du tout avoir la possibilité de demander l’hébergement alterné. Comme nous l’avons précisé plus haut, ce sentiment se confirme au vu des témoignages de pères recueillis durant l’enquête.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ensuite, certains y voient l’impact de l’importante médiatisation qui a accompagné l’instauration de cette loi. Le grand public semble d’ailleurs en avoir retenu que l’application de la loi équivalait à une mise en place systématique de l’hébergement égalitaire, message inadéquat que nous avons également rencontré lorsque nous avons interrogé les parents.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Puisqu’on demande plus fréquemment l’hébergement alterné de type égalitaire, il est logique de constater que les jugements l’instaurant sont également plus nombreux. Seule une juge de la jeunesse nous confie avoir le sentiment de revenir de l’hébergement alterné pour retourner vers un hébergement plus classique.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Certains des avocats que nous avons interrogés, nous ont expliqué que, le fait que le législateur pose l’égalité parentale en principe pouvait avoir un impact positif sur les conflits. Selon eux, il y aurait un double effet. Premièrement, le fait que les parents pensent ne pas avoir d’autre choix qu’accepter l’hébergement alterné et deuxièmement, le fait que certaines mères n’osent pas pousser le conflit trop loin de peur de voir leur ancien conjoint demander un hébergement alterné auquel elles se refusent ; elles préféreraient ainsi abandonner une pension alimentaire ou tout autre avantage de ce type. Ce dernier point, tout particulièrement, nous semble un des effets pervers possibles de l’instauration de cette loi. Le lien peut être fait avec ce que nous évoquions précédemment, lorsque nous envisagions la méconnaissance par la justice des dynamiques de couple. (Chantage, manipulation, etc.)</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Voici les principaux points retenus par les professionnels. Nous pouvons souligner qu’un aspect est oublié par toutes les personnes rencontrées à l’exception d’une juge de la jeunesse. Il s’agit de la deuxième partie de la loi, à savoir « règlementant l’exécution forcée en matière d’hébergement d’enfant ». La majorité des juges rencontrés ne semble donc pas avoir recours à l’exécution forcée.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Ce que pensent les professionnels de la loi de 2006 et de l’hébergement alterné. </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Trois points ont été passés à la loupe lorsqu’il a été question de recueillir l’avis des professionnels. Il s’agit de l’utilité de l’instauration du texte de loi, d’une critique du texte de loi en lui‐même, et de manière plus générale, de leur sentiment par rapport au système d’hébergement égalitaire.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Certains des professionnels que nous avons rencontrés nous ont confié douter de l’utilité de l’instauration de ce texte de loi. Nous avons pu constater qu’il s’agissait de magistrats qui statuaient déjà en faveur de l’hébergement égalitaire avant l’instauration de la loi, cette dernière n’avait alors que très peu changé leur pratique.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Quelques professionnels pointent du doigt la rédaction du texte de loi en lui‐même. Le débat s’articule alors autour de la notion de cas par cas. Pour une minorité, la formulation de la loi va à l’encontre de l’application de ce principe. Pour l’ensemble des professionnels, comme nous l’avons cité précédemment, la principale qualité de cette loi réside, justement, dans le fait que sa rédaction laisse une certaine liberté de décision aux magistrats. Ce qui, disent‐ils, leur convient parfaitement.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il nous semblait également intéressant d’investiguer les représentations qu’avaient les professionnels de l’hébergement alterné de type égalitaire. Il nous semblait que ces dernières pouvaient éventuellement influencer leur manière d’appliquer la loi et d’informer les parties.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans ce cas également, le débat a tourné autour d’un concept central, l’intérêt de l’enfant. Les visions des uns et des autres divergent.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Au nom, donc, de l’intérêt de l’enfant, certains professionnels du droit familial affirment être complètement opposés à ce mode d’hébergement. Selon eux, l’impact sur les enfants peut se révéler catastrophique, et ce, d’autant plus qu’ils entretiendraient, selon eux, les conflits parentaux. Ils perçoivent ce système comme n’octroyant pas à l’enfant un statut d’être humain mais le reléguant plutôt à une place d’objet. L’idéal de la famille nucléaire est généralement très présent dans le discours de ces professionnels.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les professionnels tendent également à considérer que l’hébergement alterné est un système engendrant un coût très élevé, impossible à assumer par certaines familles.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Lorsqu’on leur demande ce qu’ils pensent de ce mode d’hébergement, une catégorie professionnelle se distingue par ses préoccupations. Il s’agit des médiateurs familiaux. Probablement parce qu’ils sont fréquemment confrontés à l’aspect pratique de l’hébergement alterné, et parce que leur rôle consiste notamment à anticiper d’éventuelles difficultés ou à aider les parents à les dépasser lorsqu’elles se présentent ; les considérations d’ordre pratique sont largement présentent dans leur discours. Ils insistent alors sur des points très précis, tel le lieu de domiciliation de l’enfant ou encore, le partage des allocations familiales.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Une moitié des professionnels que nous avons interrogés porte cependant un regard positif sur l’hébergement alterné de type égalitaire. Ils se représentent ce système d’hébergement comme un outil potentiel permettant la communication entre les parents, mais également comme un moyen permettant de lutter contre le risque de rupture du lien parental. Ce type d’organisation est également perçu comme un système offrant un certain confort aux parents en ce sens qu’il leur permet de « souffler » une semaine sur deux et d’être pleinement parent le reste du temps. Ce vécu concorde avec certains des témoignages recueillis auprès des parents. L’hébergement égalitaire est parfois perçu comme pouvant favoriser la qualité de la relation parent‐enfant, notamment la relation avec le père.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Parmi notre échantillon, les avocats étaient ceux qui étaient les plus opposés à ce mode d’hébergement. Un seul nous a confié le conseiller à ses clients. Les médiateurs sont, quant à eux, ceux qui se sont montrés les plus positifs vis‐à‐vis de l’hébergement égalitaire, et ce, en dépit des problèmes organisationnels qui peuvent en découler.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>Les intervenants du droit familial</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous nous centrerons ici principalement sur les rôles des juges et des avocats, nous reviendrons ultérieurement sur le rôle des médiateurs.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Le rôle des avocats</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans un premier temps, nous avons demandé aux juges et aux médiateurs quel était, selon eux, le rôle des avocats. Les deux professions s’accordent, à ce sujet, sur deux reproches formulés à l’égard des avocats.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Tout d’abord, ils déplorent l’attitude des avocats vis‐à‐vis de la médiation ainsi que les propos qu’ils tiennent parfois à son sujet, et par conséquent, l’information qu’ils fournissent à leurs clients. Dans ce cas, la médiation est souvent considérée comme une perte de temps et d’argent, et comme ôtant une part de clientèle aux avocats. Une certaines concurrence s’opérerait alors entre les deux professions, les avocats allant parfois jusqu’à décourager leurs clients d’entamer une médiation lorsqu’ils en expriment le désir. Ce type de reproche est principalement formulé à l’égard des avocats non‐médiateurs.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ensuite, juges et médiateurs critiquent la possibilité qu’ont les avocats d’accéder à la profession de médiateur. Pour beaucoup, ces deux professions se trouvent dans des dynamiques bien trop différentes, voir opposées pour qu’une même personne puisse passer d’une à l’autre. On nous a ainsi expliqué que l’avocat avait pour rôle la défense d’un seul client et qu’il avait un rapport particulier au conflit dans ce sens où il lui arrivait de l’utiliser et d’en tirer parti pour défendre la cause de son client. Le médiateur a pour rôle de veiller à l’intérêt du couple en entier, sans en privilégier un membre par rapport à l’autre et d’apaiser le conflit en menant les parties vers un accord convenant à chacun. Selon les professionnels interrogés, le rôle de médiateur tenu par les avocats en pâtirait obligatoirement.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De manière plus spécifique, les juges désignent l’avocat comme étant celui chargé d’informer son client. En lien avec ce rôle de conseiller, les juges nous ont informés qu’il était de plus en plus fréquent que les parties se présentent devant les tribunaux sans être représentées par un avocat. Ils y voient là un effet de difficultés économiques tendant à s’aggraver plus on avance dans le temps. Dans ce cas, on peut se demander qu’elle est alors l’information à disposition des parents suivant ce type de voie.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans un second temps nous avons interrogé les avocats quant à leur vision du rôle qu’ils jouent auprès de leurs clients. Nous remarquons alors que le critère économique est très présent dans le discours des avocats. Ainsi, ils nous expliquent ne pas avoir la possibilité d’éviter certaines procédures, au risque de voir leurs revenus trop amoindris.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les avocats rencontrés nuancent la croyance selon laquelle ils auraient pour habitude d’attiser, voir d’engendrer, le conflit. Ils expliquent alors que l’avocat a avant tout un rôle de porte parole de son client. Le travail de conseil et peut‐être d’apaisement des conflits qui a lieu en dehors de l’audience n’est donc pas toujours visible. De plus, les avocats rencontrés semblent persuadés qu’il n’est pas nécessaire que les parties soit représentées par un avocat pour parvenir à se déchirer, il semblerait qu’elles y parviennent très bien sans cela. Il serait effectivement déjà dans cet état d’esprit ne serait‐ce que de par la dynamique judiciaire et la possibilité d’emporter quelque chose par rapport à l’autre.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Le rôle du Juge et ses motivations</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Lorsque la thématique du rôle du juge est abordée, différents aspects sont énoncés. Il s’agit du nouveau rôle du juge conciliateur, du discours tenu par le juge, de l’importance que les décisions soient prises au cas par cas, de la grande diversité des jurisprudences et, au final, des critères qui motivent les décisions judiciaires.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le texte prévoit que le tribunal, et donc le juge, en plus de trancher en cas de litige, tente de concilier les parties en leur donnant les informations utiles sur les procédures et sur l’intérêt de la médiation. Il peut, dans ce cadre, avoir recours à la médiation. En fonction de ces recommandations, on peut imaginer que le juge serait à même d’orienter chaque parent de manière spécifique et adaptée à sa situation vers un intervenant en mesure de répondre à ses besoins. D’après le témoignage de certains juges que nous avons rencontrés, il n’est pas aisé d’endosser ce rôle de conciliateur au vu de la réalité judiciaire. Différents obstacles sont alors pointés. Le premier est d’ordre matériel et est relatif au manque de temps accordé à chaque dossier lors des audiences d’introduction. Effectivement, ces dernières sont généralement surchargées et il n’est généralement pas possible d’accorder plus de 5 à 10 minutes par situation. Le second est relatif à la formation des magistrats. Certains nous ont confié ne pas avoir reçu la formation qui leur permettrait d’exercer ce rôle de conciliateur adéquatement, ne serait ce parce qu’ils ne disposent pas d’informations spécifiques sur les propriétés intrinsèques des différentes mesures possibles.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Lorsque les professionnels abordent la question du discours du Juge, nous pouvons constater que les expériences et donc les opinions qui en découlent, divergent. Là où certains juges sont perçus comme étant tout à fait adéquats, d’autres pointent leur formation en matière d’accueil du justiciable. Il apparaît ainsi que certains ont une conception très autoritaire de leur rôle, laissant alors peu de place aux parents, pourtant très concernés par la décision qui va être prise. Nous avons recueillis différents témoignages plaidant la nécessité pour le juge de tenir un discours adapté aux représentations qu’ont les parents de leur rôle, certains allant jusqu’à qualifier le fait de tenter de leur imposer le discours de la société de « violence institutionnelle [1] ».</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Tous les professionnels rencontrés s’accordent sur un point, nous l’avons déjà abordé, la nécessité de la prise de décision au cas par cas. Lorsqu’il est question du rôle du juge, ce point est largement abordé et développé. Nous en retiendrons une certaine unanimité à ce sujet et ce en dépit du fait que cette loi, instaurée en 2006, avait notamment pour objectif de rendre les décisions de justice plus prévisibles. Cet objectif est plutôt mis à mal par ce mode de fonctionnement. D’après les interviews que nous avons menées, il semblerait que les juges ne tolèrent pas qu’il en soit autrement. Pour eux, il est primordial que la justice ne soit pas automatique et que les situations soient analysées pour qu’une solution adaptée soit trouvée. Notons cependant que là où certains parlent de « cas par cas », d’autres parlent de « juge par juge », tant les pratiques d’un juge à l’autre peuvent différer.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les juges rencontrés semblent conscients de la grande diversité des jurisprudences. Ils justifient cela par le fait que la justice est faite par des êtres humains et que cela ne saurait être évité. Les avocats partagent en majorité cette conception du fonctionnement judiciaire.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ces différences de jurisprudence peuvent notamment s’expliquer par les différences de critères servant de repères aux juges. Effectivement, certains juges accordent plus de poids à tel ou tel aspect, alors que d’autres vont plutôt se centrer sur un élément différent. Après la dizaine d’interviews menées, il apparaît clairement que les juges prennent une même décision sur base d’arguments différents, liés aux préférences de chacun, mais également en rapport avec leurs représentations de la famille. La plupart des juges interrogés, au même titre que les autres professionnels de notre échantillon, conservent une représentation selon laquelle la famille nucléaire reste le modèle familial idéal. Les juges nous ont confié prendre la « moins mauvaise » décision lorsqu’ils statuaient en faveur d’un mode d’hébergement.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons, en outre, relevé que les juges et les avocats rencontrés faisaient souvent référence à leur vécu personnel. Ainsi, certains se positionnent en tant que père ou en tant que mère lorsqu’ils justifient leurs décisions.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Suite à ce dernier point, on peut se demander s’il est adéquat qu’un professionnel de la justice se laisse en partie guider par son propre vécu. En tant que professionnel sa conduite ne devrait‐elle pas être guidée par d’autres valeurs, celles de la société ou de la communauté scientifique, par exemple ? Si son rôle est de trancher entre les différentes définitions de l’intérêt de l’enfant, il est effectivement important qu’il ne se laisse pas diriger par ses valeurs personnelles qui pourraient automatiquement orienter le débat.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons également pu remarquer que certains éléments constituent pour quelques juges un facteur d’exclusion vis‐à‐vis de l’hébergement égalitaire alors que pour d’autres, il s’agira d’un élément favorisant, considéré comme influençant positivement l’instauration d’un système d’hébergement alterné.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Parmi les arguments pris en compte, nous avons pu recenser : la divergence philosophique, les aptitudes éducatives parentales, la disponibilité des parents, l’absence de dialogue entre les parents, le fait que l’un menace l’autre, l’âge de l’enfant, le niveau de vie des parents, l’éloignement géographique, la manière dont l’enfant vis sa relation avec chacun de ses parents, la position de l’enfant face au choix d’hébergement, et enfin, la personnalité des parents.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Notons également que tous les juges n’évaluent pas ces différents points avec les mêmes méthodes et que le court laps de temps consacré à une situation lors de l’audience d’introduction ne permet pas toujours de réaliser, une analyse approfondie d’éléments complexes, tels que les aptitudes éducatives parentales ou encore la personnalité des parents.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pour terminer, notons que les magistrats se basent chacun sur un âge limite différent considéré comme valeur seuil en dessous de laquelle l’hébergement alterné de type égalitaire doit être évité. Or, aucun ne semble baser ce critère sur des arguments scientifiques, psychologiques, comme par exemple, la notion de temporalité à mettre en lien avec l’âge de l’enfant. Effectivement, en fonction de son âge, l’enfant n’aura pas le même rapport au temps qui passe. Ainsi, plus l’enfant sera petit, plus le temps lui semblera long. Il ne semble donc pas pertinent d’envisager le changement de domicile d’un petit enfant de semaine en semaine avec nos repères temporel d’adultes, comme semblent le faire beaucoup des juges rencontrés.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le dernier point mis en lumière par ces interviews, est celui de la formation des juges, pointée et dénoncée par de nombreux professionnels et même, dans certains cas, par les juges eux‐mêmes. Cette formation a effectivement été remise en cause en regard de leurs connaissances des moyens d’instruction mais également lorsqu’il a été question de l’accueil parfois réservé au justiciable. Cette formation est également mise à mal lorsqu’on aborde la question des auditions d’enfants réalisées par le juge.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>Les mesures d’instruction</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;">Sous cet intitulé sont repris différents éléments. Il s’agit, d’une part, de la propension qu’ont les juges à avoir recours à différents moyens d’investigation. Les entretiens nous ont permis d’en recenser quatre, à savoir : l’expertise, les études civiles sociales, les enquêtes de police, et enfin, les auditions d’enfants réalisées par un psychologue.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">D’autre part, les magistrats rencontrés ont exposé leurs motivations à opter pour l’un ou l’autre de ces moyens.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• L’expertise</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’expertise semble être un moyen d’investigation utilisé avec parcimonie. Trois facteurs explicatifs peuvent ici être mis en lumière.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le premier, de loin le plus cité, n’est autre que le coût engendré par l’expertise. L’expertise est prise en charge par les parties puisqu’il s’agit de procédures civiles, le coût peut s’élever de 1000€ (à Liège), auxquels devront être ajoutés 200 à 300 € par enfant supplémentaire, jusqu’à 2000 € (à Bruxelles). Seuls ceux qui sont dans les conditions de l’aide légale ont droit à un coût réduit de l’expertise.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le deuxième facteur est commun à différentes méthodes d’investigation, il s’agit du temps nécessaire à l’expertise. Ainsi, une expertise peut prendre, selon les dires des juges, environ six mois. Il arrive même, d’après certains, qu’une expertise soit ordonnée mais qu’elle ne soit jamais réalisée.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le troisième élément explicatif est relatif à la nouvelle législation concernant l’expertise. Cette dernière nous a été décrite comme étant « trop lourde » et comme « compliquant les choses ». Il semble alors que certains magistrats cherchent à contourner la législation en préférant ordonner ce qu’ils appellent des « mini‐expertises », plutôt que les expertises telles que prévues par le cadre légal.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’essentiel des magistrats interrogés semble avoir une utilisation de l’expertise très mesurée. Les situations pour lesquelles une expertise est demandée, sont alors celles pour lesquelles il y a un risque de rupture du lien parental, ou celles dans lesquelles un des deux parents semble atteint d’une pathologie psychiatrique, ou encore, celles où la souffrance de l’enfant est telle que l’expertise pourrait déterminer la protectionnalisation du dossier.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Les études civiles sociales</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les études sociales civiles sont un processus dynamique de récolte d&#8217;informations qui s&#8217;inscrit dans un contexte déterminé, à un moment donné.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>Le point de vue des juges</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;">Près de la moitié des juges rencontrés nous a parlé des études civiles sociales. Les autres ne les ont pas évoquées. Nous supposons donc qu’ils n’y ont pas recours fréquemment.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Concernant ce qu’en ont dit ceux qui l’ont évoquée, nous avons remarqué que tous ont abordé la question du temps pris par les études sociales. Effectivement, même ceux qui nous disent fréquemment mandater les assistants de justice déplorent le fait qu’un rapport se fasse attendre six à neuf mois. Certains semblent freinés par une si longue attente et ont tendance à faire de moins en moins appel aux assistants de justice. D’autres, en dépit de cet inconvénient, estiment que le travail fourni étant de très bonne qualité, il est toujours bénéfique de décider d’effectuer une étude sociale.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Au cours des entretiens, nous avons remarqué qu’il y avait débat autour du style rédactionnel (simple recueil de discours sans prises de positions) des rapports des assistants de justice, mais également quant aux attentes concernant les objectifs de ces derniers. Ainsi, sur deux juges de la Jeunesse, un affirme ne voir aucune utilité à ces rapports puisqu’à aucun moment l’assistant de justice ne propose une piste quant au mode d’hébergement à choisir. L’autre juge nous explique qu’il lui semble normal que les assistants de justice ne se positionnent pas en faveur d’une solution particulière puisqu’il s’agit justement de la charge qui incombe au juge, à savoir, statuer.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ce sont donc la durée des études et la méconnaissance des objectifs des assistants de justice qui semblent poser question aux magistrats.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>Le point de vue des assistants de justice</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous sommes allés à la rencontre de trois assistants de justice travaillant dans les arrondissements de Liège, Bruxelles et Charleroi.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les entretiens ainsi menés nous ont appris que les assistants de justices reçoivent des demandes d’études civiles sociales de l’ensemble des magistrats de leur arrondissement. En général, les assistants de justice s’accordent avec l’ensemble de leurs collègues sur le fait que c’est plutôt dans leurs habitudes que les juges se distinguent. Ainsi, tel juge demande souvent une étude sociale dans tel contexte (toxicomanie, hébergement égalitaire, etc.), alors que tel autre juge va plutôt se différencier dans sa manière de rédiger le mandat, en posant des questions très précises ou au contraire en restant très vague. Il apparaît alors que même les juges qui remettent en cause les études sociales y ont en réalité régulièrement recours.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il est également apparu qu’assistants de justice et juges avaient peu souvent l’occasion de communiquer entre eux. Il semble qu’une unique rencontre entre magistrats et assistants de justice a été organisée dans le passé mais qu’elle n’a pas été réitérée. Or, tous les magistrats en place ne sont plus spécialement les mêmes, et il en va de même pour les assistants de justice. Les juges connaissent fort peu la méthodologie des assistants de justice et les attentes qu’ils peuvent avoir vis‐à‐vis du rapport qui leur est remis. Par ailleurs, nous avons appris que les assistants en sont conscients, ce qui les amène parfois à se demander si leur rapport est lu dans son intégralité et comment il est utilisé.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les assistants de justice nous apprennent que, d’une part, il apparaît que s’il y a un long délai d’attente entre le moment où le juge mandate et celui où le rapport est remis, ce dernier à imputer à un retard structurel. En clair, il est possible qu’un certain temps s’écoule entre le moment où le mandat arrive à la maison de justice et celui où l’étude est attribuée à un assistant. Cela est dû au fait que chaque assistant à un nombre maximum de dossiers ouverts en même temps (7 à 9 pour un équivalent temps plein dans les maisons de justice de Liège et Charleroi). Lorsqu’une étude se termine, une nouvelle situation est automatiquement prise en charge. Il semblerait cependant que les retards n’atteignent pas 6 à 9 mois comme les juges nous l’ont rapporté. Le retard semble s’expliquer par certaines périodes au cours desquelles il y aurait une plus grande affluence de dossiers, mais également parfois, par une équipe en léger sous effectif. D’autre part, rappelons également que certaines familles sont difficiles à joindre (pas de réponse ou l’enfant présent un seul dimanche par mois chez le père alors qu’il doit être rencontré dans son milieu de vie). Il arrive aussi que beaucoup de personnes soient concernées par l’étude sociale (nombreux enfants, nombreuses personnes concernées et devant être rencontrées telles que les grands‐parents, les nouveaux conjoints, etc.).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Par rapport à l’aspect rédactionnel et aux objectifs du rapport, conformément au BPR [2] , tous s’accordent sur le fait qu’ils ont certes, un rôle d’information, mais qu’ils n’ont pas à se prononcer sur le mode d’hébergement à choisir.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Les enquêtes de police </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Parmi la dizaine de juges rencontrés, trois d’entre eux nous ont parlé des enquêtes de police. Il s’agit pour eux d’un moyen auquel ils ont fréquemment recours lorsqu’ils s’interrogent sur des éléments matériels relatifs au milieu de vie de l’enfant. La police s’inscrit clairement dans une démarche de vérification (Conditions d’hygiène, frigo rempli, espace suffisant à chacun, etc.).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Les auditions d’enfants réalisées par un psychologue </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Deux juges, aux tribunaux des Référés et de la Jeunesse, nous ont dit préférer faire entendre les enfants par un psychologue plutôt que par elles‐mêmes quand la situation le permettait. Bien qu’il s’agisse des deux seules juges de notre échantillon à pratiquer de la sorte, certains professionnels du secteur nous ont affirmé que d’autres magistrats fonctionnaient ainsi.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans ce cas, la méthodologie appliquée est très stricte. L’enfant est amené chez le psychologue une première fois par le père et une deuxième fois par la mère. L’objectif est ici de parvenir à départager la partie du discours de l’enfant induit par chacun des parents, du discours qui lui est propre. [3]</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ce procédé permet tout de même d’avoir l’avis d’un psychologue à un coût nettement réduit (environ 50‐100€) en un laps de temps relativement court. Notons cependant que les moyens (en terme de temps, d’outils et de nombre d’entretiens) mis en oeuvre lors des expertises restent bien plus importants, et ce, tout particulièrement au niveau du nombre d’entretiens fixés avec l’enfant.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le point négatif souligné par la juge de la Jeunesse qui a recours à ces auditions d’enfant, est le fait que certains psychologues essayent de réaliser une expertise. Or, ce n’est pas ce qui leur est demandé.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les auditions d’enfants par un psychologue, semblent néanmoins être un moyen moins coûteux et plus rapide d’obtenir l’avis d’un psychologue sur un dossier. Notre échantillon ne nous a cependant pas permis de nous rendre compte de l’ampleur de cette pratique.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Conclusion</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De manière générale, la communication autour de ces collaborations (juges – mesures d’instruction) apparaît comme un élément clé. Nous avons pu remarquer que tous n’ont pas la même définition des mesures d’instruction, ce qui, par conséquent, les amène à avoir des attentes différentes. Il nous semble que ce probable manque de communication, et la méconnaissance qu’il engendre, seraient à l’origine du discours parfois décourageant tenu par certains professionnels à l’encontre des autres professions du secteur du droit familial.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>La médiation</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons interrogé les médiateurs au sujet de leur profession, de la vision qu’ils en avaient.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Notre premier constat à été d’observer que les médiateurs rencontrés provenaient d’horizons professionnels divers et variés mais ils sont néanmoins regroupés en trois catégories de médiateurs : les avocats, les notaires, et les « tiers [4] ».</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Beaucoup de médiateurs interrogés se sont formés à la médiation suite à un événement personnel : une séparation, des difficultés relationnelles au sein de leur famille, etc.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pour les avocats, il s’agissait plutôt de poser un autre regard sur une même situation Il apparaît clairement que le conflit tel qu’il peut parfois être géré par les avocats insatisfait par moment certains, ce qui les a amenés à se réorienter professionnellement. Les situations rencontrées dans le cadre d’une médiation sont assez similaires à celles rencontrées par les avocats. C’est définitivement le regard posé sur celles‐ci qui se veut différent. Le rapport au conflit et la manière d’y réfléchir sont des éléments dont les avocats médiateurs nous ont tous parlé. Il semble donc qu’il s’agisse d’éléments déterminants les ayant amenés à faire de la médiation.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le deuxième constat qui découle de ces interviews est de loin celui qui semble le plus préoccuper les médiateurs. Il s’agit de leur difficulté à pratiquer la médiation, judiciaire ou non. Sur la dizaine de médiateurs rencontrés, une petite moitié nous a confié fréquemment recevoir des médiés envoyés par le juge. Nous remarquons que ceux qui ont la meilleure collaboration avec les tribunaux sont ceux qui ont pu communiquer avec les magistrats et leur expliquer en quoi leur travail consistait. Cet élément semble encourager une meilleure communication entre les deux professions. Il apparaît également que les médiateurs les plus sollicités pour des médiations judiciaires sont ceux qui pratiquent les coûts les plus bas, pouvant aller jusqu’à la gratuité. Les professionnels exerçant en asbl ou en planning familial nous expliquent donc ne pas connaître ces difficultés. Ce qui va dans le sens des déclarations des juges puisqu’ils ont affirmé être particulièrement attentifs aux coûts qui devront être pris en charge par le justiciable.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Concernant la médiation judiciaire, deux facteurs ressortent. A savoir, le coût de la médiation et la communication interprofessionnelle. La seconde moitié des médiateurs, travaille le plus fréquemment dans le cadre de médiation « spontanée », c’est‐à‐dire débutées à l’initiative du ou des médié(s).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les médiateurs nous ont expliqué souffrir du manque d’information dont dispose le grand public à leur égard, et souhaiteraient d’avantage se faire connaître. Il semblerait que certains magistrats manquent, eux aussi, d’information à ce sujet.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le troisième élément largement abordé par les médiateurs est celui relatif à la formation. Les médiateurs nous ont énormément parlé de formation, la leur, mais surtout celle des autres. Nous avons pu observer qu’un véritable débat existait à ce sujet. En nous basant sur les témoignages, nous comprenons que deux formations existent, une troisième est également accessible, à Louvain‐la‐Neuve, mais personne ne l’a évoquée.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La première, dispensée par le Barreau, est destinée aux avocats. Le cycle de formation dure 90 h et les avocats ont ensuite l’obligation de continuer à se former régulièrement.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La seconde est un post graduat de deux ans et demi, comprenant cours théoriques et stages, elle est destinée à ce que l’on appelle les « tiers ».</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les uns critiquent la formation des autres. Les médiateurs tiers déplorent le manque de formation en psychologie et en médiation des avocats médiateurs, tandis que ceux‐ci reprochent aux premiers leur manque d’acquis juridiques.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Comme précédemment cité lorsque nous avons abordé la question du rôle des avocats, l’ensemble des professionnels du droit familial remet majoritairement en cause la double casquette « avocat et médiateur ». Il en va de même des notaires médiateurs que certains nous ont décrit comme incapables de saisir la dynamique du conflit, eux qui auraient une représentation figée des choses de par leur profession d’origine.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La profession de médiateur nous apparaît, somme toute, divisée en deux à trois catégories se discréditant les unes les autres. Cette profession éprouvant déjà quelques difficultés à s’imposer, nous pouvons imaginer que cette pratique dessert plutôt l’image de la médiation auprès du grand public mais également auprès des autres professionnels du secteur.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous reprenons la suggestion d’une médiatrice tiers qui nous disait que l’essentiel était d’informer les parents sur les spécificités de la formation des uns et des autres et que, même actuellement, un parent qui se rend chez un avocat médiateur n’a pas exactement les mêmes intentions, les mêmes attentes, qu’un autre allant chez un médiateur « tiers ».</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ensuite, nous avons interrogé les médiateurs sur le moment auquel les parents entament une médiation. Il est apparu qu’elles pouvaient avoir lieu à des moments fort différents. Les médiations les plus rares sont celles que l’ont peut qualifier de « préventives ». Le médiateur est alors consulté avant que le couple n’ait pris de décision. La majorité des consultations se feraient pendant les procédures ou alors, bien après celles‐ci.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans le premier cas, il s’agit le plus souvent de médiations entamées sur base du conseil d’un juge ou d’un avocat, ce sont, semble‐t‐il, les avocats médiateurs les principaux concernés par ces demandes. Dans le second cas, il s’agit de parents consultant de nombreuses années après qu’une décision de justice ait été prise, cette dernière ne leur convenant plus. Il arrive parfois qu’ils engagent, en parallèle à la médiation, de nouvelles procédures judiciaires, mais pas forcément. Les médiateurs tiers sont ceux qui semblent le plus sollicités dans le cadre de ce type de demandes. Enfin, à l’unanimité, un moment est généralement désigné comme inopportun pour débuter une médiation, il s’agit du « dernier instant », lorsque tout a été essayé et qu’il serait tentant de proposer la médiation comme  « solution miracle » en dépit de l’enlisement dans lequel se trouvent les parties.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Lorsque nous avons examiné la question du coût de la médiation, nous avons recensé des séances allant de la gratuité jusqu’à une centaine d’euro en fonction du type de médiateur et du cadre dans lequel la médiation se déroulait. Ainsi, les asbl et les plannings sont ceux qui proposent les tarifs les plus bas, le premier cas de figure concerne généralement des médiateurs tiers, alors qu’en planning on y retrouve habituellement des médiateurs juristes, en raison des contraintes des fédérations de planning réglementant l’engagement du personnel. Les médiations les plus chères sont celles des avocats médiateurs, 75€, 80€, 90€, allant parfois jusqu’à 100€. Ajoutons qu’il est possible de bénéficier des services d’un avocat médiateur « prodéo », mais uniquement lorsqu’on remplit certaines conditions économiques.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons constaté de grandes variations concernant le nombre de consultations constituant une médiation. La durée de la médiation et le nombre de séances qu’elle comporte peuvent, en fait, être mis en lien avec son coût. Il semble en effet que plus les séances sont onéreuses, moins elles soient nombreuses. Les médiations les plus brèves durent environ trois séances.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Une médiation peut prendre jusqu’à 15 séances. Une séance peut durer jusqu’à 2h, avec une moyenne de 1h à 1h30. Elles concernent principalement les notaires médiateurs et certains avocats médiateurs. Entre ces deux extrêmes, 15 et 3 séances, une majorité de médiateurs, avocats ou tiers, pratiquent des médiations de quatre, cinq, six voire sept séances.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les médiateurs nous ont rapporté qu’ils étaient consultés, toute orientation confondue, pour deux raisons principales. En première position se situe la question de l’hébergement des enfants qui est de loin, la plus fréquente. En seconde position, viennent les questions financières et matérielles. (Qui garde la maison, comment se partage t‐on les biens ? Etc.) L’hébergement alterné, en particulier, semble être à l’origine de beaucoup de demandes de médiation, ce mode de garde posant à la fois des questions d’acceptation et d’organisation.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les difficultés d’organisation liées à l’alternance les plus fréquemment citées sont : la répartition des vacances, la conciliation de la vie familiale avec la recomposition familiale, la répartition des frais extraordinaires, le montant de la part contributive, et le partage des allocations familiales et de l’avantage fiscal. Notons que certaines médiations concernent l’ensemble de la problématique du divorce ou de la séparation, alors que d’autres sont plus ciblées autour d’un ou deux point(s) de questionnement.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Lorsqu’il a été question de la représentation qu’ont les médiateurs de leur fonction et de ses objectifs, nous nous sommes aperçus qu’il existait différentes écoles de pensée. Chacune d’entre elles conditionnant leur conception du rôle de médiateur et leur manière d’en évaluer les objectifs. La première catégorie de médiateurs est opposée à une recherche de l’accord à tout prix. C’est la relation qui doit être travaillée. Le critère de réussite de ces médiations est donc relationnel, on est ici attentif à la restauration du lien, de la communication et du respect mutuel. Dans ce cas, la médiation n’aboutira à la rédaction d’un accord que si cela est nécessaire. Pour la seconde catégorie de médiateurs, la solution aux problèmes des médiés occupe une grande place dans leur discours. Leur critère est donc matériel, l’objectif étant l’accord en tant que document, rédigé par le médiateur et signé par les parties. L’accord va généralement être le critère recherché par les avocats et les notaires, alors que les médiateurs tiers vont accorder de l’importance aux critères plus abstraits que sont le lien et la communication.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous terminons par ce que nous appelons une situation «contre‐indiquée à la médiation». Il s’agit des cas ou un des membres du couple a une relation d’emprise sur l’autre, exerçant alors une forme de manipulation. La médiation ne ferait, dans ce contexte, que renforcer la parole du plus fort. Ce serait alors la responsabilité du médiateur de détecter cela et d’interrompre le processus de médiation.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>La place de l’enfant</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les enfants, même s’ils ne sont pas « partie » au sens juridique du terme, occupent une place importante au sein des procédures. C’est d’ailleurs au nom de leur intérêt que le magistrat va être amené à trancher quant à leur mode d’hébergement et que parents et intervenants du monde juridique se revendiquent.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons pu observer que le rôle prévu pour l’enfant par le cadre légal était différent en fonction de son âge et du tribunal auprès duquel la requête était introduite.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Effectivement, l’enfant à partir de 12 ans recevra automatiquement une convocation à son nom si les procédures se déroulent au sein du Tribunal de la Jeunesse. Il sera alors invité à être entendu, sans y être obligé. Au sein d’un autre tribunal, si l’enfant de plus de 12 ans veut être entendu, il devra en faire la demande par écrit au juge en charge du dossier. Les mineurs de moins de 12 ans sont moins fréquemment entendus. Des différences existent cependant en fonction du juge à qui l’appréciation de la situation et donc de la maturité de l’enfant est laissée.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons précédemment évoqué la place de l’enfant au sein des médiations. Rares sont les médiateurs qui les rencontrent, principalement parce qu’ils estiment ne pas avoir une formation leur permettant de le faire. L’enfant est donc généralement cantonné à la place de la « chaise vide », absent physiquement mais très présent dans le discours des parents.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons également constaté que les acteurs du monde judiciaire s’interrogeaient sur ce qu’il convient de rapporter au parent des paroles de l’enfant. C’est ainsi que certains juges ont pour habitude de retranscrire l’intégralité des dires de l’enfant dans le rapport à disposition de l’avocat des parents, alors que d’autres suivent les désirs de l’enfant et ne font par seulement de ce qu’il les autorise à répéter, et donc, à prendre en compte pour le dossier. Il en ressort également que, pour la majorité des magistrats, le cadre de l’audition d’enfant doit être bien posé et que ce dernier sache exactement à quoi s’en tenir à ce sujet.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>Les motivations parentales à l’hébergement des enfants</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les motivations généralement reprises par les parents sont : le fait qu’un des parents évalue que l’autre parent n’a pas les capacités éducatives suffisantes, la distance géographique entre les domiciles parentaux, le maintien des contacts entre l’enfant et ses frères et soeurs issus d’une autre union, la volonté d’un des parents de “changer de vie” et de moins assumer la charge des enfants, les disponibilités horaire au regard de la vie professionnelle, le fait qu’un des deux ne désire pas héberger les enfants plus d’un certain temps, et, dans une faible mesure, le fait que le parent souhaite que l’enfant continue à voir aussi bien son père que sa mère ou encore de ne plus payer de part contributive.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous pouvons donc remarquer qu’à la question : “Qu’est‐ce qui a motivé votre choix d’hébergement ?”, personne n’a évoqué la volonté ou l’intérêt de l’enfant. Les professionnels rapportent que les parents motivent leurs demandes par le souhait d’avoir les mêmes droits que l’autre parent, de trouver l’intérêt de l’enfant, de s’investir autant que l’autre, et de se trouver sur un pied d’égalité au niveau décisionnel et tout particulièrement en ce qui concerne la scolarité des enfants.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le discours tenu devant les tribunaux semble alors courtois et poli, et reflétant, au final, assez peu les véritables motivations des parents qui elles, nous semblent plutôt terre‐à‐terre et surtout faites de considérations pratiques.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Par rapport à cela, on peut alors faire le lien avec ce qu’un expert pédopsychiatrique auprès des tribunaux, nous a dit, à savoir que le tribunal est le lieu des convenances et de la politesse et non celui de l’évaluation des relations parent‐enfant.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">On peut donc souligner que les motivations des parents rapportées par les professionnels sont bien différentes. Il était alors question de concept tels que l’égalité parentale et l’intérêt de l’enfant.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">On peut se demander si le tribunal est l’endroit le plus adéquat pour régler le conflit familial. Quels sont les moyens donnés aux juges pour approcher la réalité telle qu’elle est vécue par les parents ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">A la suite de De Scheemaeker (2008), nous rappelons le débat initié par Hayez et Kinoo (2005) sur l&#8217;ingérence de l&#8217;Etat dans le privé des familles. En effet, ils mettent en exergue le paradoxe entre le droit reconnu aux deux parents d&#8217;exercer la fonction parentale après séparation et le fait que l&#8217;Etat déciderait de l&#8217;organisation de la vie parent‐enfant.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Notons cependant que plusieurs magistrats nous ont expliqué percevoir une motivation cachée derrière les arguments présentés face à la justice, ils manqueraient cependant de moyens pour les identifier clairement.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les questions du temps et des moyens accordés à la justice, pour lui permettre d’approcher au plus près la réalité des parents, sont ici centrales.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>Le profil des parents pratiquant l’hébergement alterné</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;">D’après notre sondage, non‐représentatif, le parent‐type est âgé de 30 à 40 ans, diplômé de l’enseignement supérieur et universitaire, et preste un temps plein dans le cadre d’une activité d’employé ou de cadre moyen. Ce qui semble se confirmer par la partie quantitative de notre recherche. Les parents pratiquant l’hébergement alterné égalitaire que nous avons rencontrés ont en grande majorité, un statut d’employé. 7 ont un statut d’indépendant et 4 sont sans emploi. 17 parents avaient 2 enfants au moment de la séparation, 11 en avaient 1, tandis qu’une minorité en avaient 3 (7 parents) et 4 (4 parents).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De par leurs statuts professionnels, nous pouvons supposer que le profil des parents pratiquant l’hébergement alterné semble correspondre à ce qu’en dit la majorité des professionnels rencontrés. À savoir que ceux pratiquant l’hébergement égalitaire étaient issus des classes moyennes supérieures, et d’un milieu intellectuellement favorisé. Ces constats ne constituent cependant que des tendances, et ne vont pas à l’encontre de l’idée selon laquelle l’hébergement de type égalitaire existe au sein de tous les milieux.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il faut cependant être prudent, ce constat d’écoulant peut‐être directement du biais de représentativité.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>Les vécu des parents quant à la séparation/ divorce et quant au mode d’hébergement mis en place</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;">En ce qui concerne l’hébergement égalitaire, il apparaît que les problèmes pratiques qui surviennent ont principalement trait aux aspects affectifs. Par ailleurs, nous constatons, parmi notre échantillon quantitatif, que les parents sont plus de 40% à avoir été confrontés à des problèmes sur le plan organisationnel. Enfin, les problèmes financiers et sur le plan éducationnel sont rencontrés dans les mêmes proportions (un tiers de notre échantillon).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De manière générale, les parents évoquent souvent le ressenti de leurs enfants lorsqu’on les questionne sur leur vécu de l’hébergement. La situation est alors décrite, par les parents, comme demeurant plutôt triste et parfois douloureuse. Beaucoup soulignent tout de même que le temps a permis une adaptation et un apaisement des difficultés.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons tenté d’identifier ce que les parents évoquaient le plus fréquemment comme étant les avantages du mode d’hébergement qu’ils ont mis en place. Les éléments les plus cités sont : une meilleure relation avec leurs enfants, une plus grande liberté retrouvée, la possibilité d’un investissement professionnel plus important, un sentiment d’équité et un investissement plus important dans le quotidien de l’enfant. Le fait que l’enfant voit ses deux parents et que les tâches soient partagées entre les parents sont également des avantages qui ont été relevés. Pour les parents ayant leurs enfants en hébergement principal, cela leur permet d’être le parent le plus présent et ayant une forme de contrôle sur la vie de l’enfant. Pour quelques pères, l’hébergement alterné leur a permis de poursuivre l’investissement qu’ils avaient dans la vie de l’enfant déjà du temps de la vie de couple.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le plus souvent, l’hébergement alterné leur apporte un sentiment d’équité dans le sens où il est synonyme d’égalité au niveau de la répartition du temps passé avec les enfants. Pour certains parents, il s’agissait de garantir l’épanouissement des parents dans leur rôle parental au travers d’un égal partage du temps passé avec les enfants.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pour les parents ayant leurs enfants en hébergement principal, cela leur permet d’être le parent de référence, le parent ayant plus de contrôle que l’autre et plus d’implication dans la vie de ses enfants, mais cela ne va pas sans la fatigue qui en découle.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les désavantages perçus et/ou vécu comme étant des difficultés sont : le fait de “passer à côté” de tout un pan de la vie de l’enfant, de devoir sans cesse changer d’habitudes et subir les conséquences de la discontinuité entre les deux lieux de vie, de supporter le vide laissé par le départ de l’enfant, et l’“assignation à résidence” induite par l’alternance. Les disparités éducatives entre les parents sont également très souvent l’objet de plaintes. Le fait de devoir rester en contact est également pointé. Certains parents nous ont dit leur difficulté de laisser leur enfant aller chez quelqu’un en qui ils n’avaient pas confiance, allant parfois jusqu’à craindre pour leur sécurité. Les transports, le fait de faire les sacs et de devoir gérer les oublis qui en découlent, sont généralement les inconvénients associés à l’hébergement égalitaire. Pour les parents pratiquant un hébergement principal, une des difficultés supplémentaires est la fatigue liée au fait de devoir assumer l’enfant quasiment seul(e).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pour finir, une difficulté liée à tous les modes d’hébergement est le fait que l’enfant se trouve en présence du nouveau compagnon ou de la nouvelle compagne de l’autre parent.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pour les parents ayant leurs enfants en hébergement principal, deux éléments se distinguaient clairement. La gestion tant quotidienne que financière des enfants et celle de la fatigue liée à l’importante charge induite par l’hébergement principal. Beaucoup de pères et de mères ayant leurs enfants la quasi totalité du temps nous ont dit combien cela pouvait être fatiguant. Cette fatigue est notamment la résultante du fait que l’essentiel des charges liées à l’enfant sont assumées par un seul parent. La gestion financière pose également problème dans bien des cas.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Une éventuelle responsabilisation des enfants a également été pointée par certains parents. Cet élément apparaît tantôt comme une conséquence positive, tantôt comme un élément plutôt négatif. Il n’est pas rare que les enfants de divorcés soient décrits comme étant plus matures que les autres enfants de leur âge. Certains auteurs [5] soutiennent même qu’une fois adultes, ils sont généralement plus autonomes et responsables que leurs pairs issus de familles unies. D’après le discours des parents, deux éléments semblent potentiellement être explicatifs. Premièrement le fait que les enfants soient amenés à devoir anticiper leurs besoins et prévoir des bagages une semaine à l’avance. Deuxièmement, le fait qu’un seul parent doive assumer la gestion du ménage là où avant deux personnes avaient cette charge, amène souvent l’enfant à y participer et à plus aider son parent qu’il ne l’aurait fait si la séparation n’était pas survenue.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pour finir, l’alternance étant propre à tout mode d’hébergement, à l’exception d’un hébergement exclusif qui amènerait l’enfant à ne plus voir un de ses parents, elle amène fréquemment les parents à se revoir ou en tous cas, à rester en contact.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Autre élément présenté comme un inconvénient lié à l’hébergement égalitaire, il s’agit du fait que l’enfant se trouve, une partie du temps, dans un milieu éducatif différent de celui que l’autre parent voudrait instaurer. Nous avons pu voir qu’avec une séparation, les différences entre les pratiques éducatives qui existaient entre les conjoints du temps de la vie commune se sont généralement exacerbées. Une minorité de parents seulement suit une même ligne éducative après concertation, d’un foyer à l’autre. Nous y reviendrons lorsque la question de l’entente parentale sera abordée.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons interrogé les parents sur le rôle qu’ils pensaient que leur ancien conjoint/ partenaire, tenait auprès de leurs enfants communs. Pour certains des professionnels que nous avons rencontrés, l’hébergement égalitaire constitue un moyen de lutter contre un risque de rupture du lien parental puisqu’il semble qu’en cas d’hébergement principal l’enfant cesse très fréquemment de voir le parent qui n’a qu’un hébergement secondaire.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">D’après les témoignages que nous avons recueillis, trois types de “places”, de “rôles” semblent se dégager. Certains seraient aussi présents que l’autre parent. D’autres sont présents mais sans réellement assumer leur rôle de parent et ayant une relation plutôt axée sur le divertissement. D’autres encore, n’auraient, d’après leur ancien conjoint, quasiment plus de place ou plus de place du tout dans la vie des enfants. Nous avons pu remarquer que les parents qualifiés de parents “loisirs”, ou de parents absents étaient dans la grande majorité des cas des parents ayant l’hébergement secondaire de leur enfant. Il arrive cependant que certains de ces parents voyant leur enfant deux week‐ends par mois, parviennent à avoir une autorité bien installée et à assumer pleinement leur rôle de père ou de mère. Dans les cas d’hébergement égalitaire de notre échantillon, il est très fréquent que le parent reconnaisse une place importante à l’autre. Notons cependant que bien que l’hébergement ait un impact important sur le type de relation parent‐enfant, l’organisation telle qu’elle existait du temps de la vie commune peut également avoir une influence considérable.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>Les modes d’organisation concrets</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Les rythmes d’alternance </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Lorsqu’un hébergement égalitaire a été mis en place au moment de la séparation, le rythme en était hebdomadaire pour les trois quarts de notre échantillon. Ils étaient 19% à fonctionner selon un hébergement bi ou trihebdomadaire et seulement 6% avaient instauré une alternance quotidienne. Ainsi, parmi les alternances possibles d’hébergement égalitaire, l’alternance par semaine est celle qui est la plus répandue.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ce constat vient appuyer les résultats du volet qualitatif de notre recherche, la majorité des parents pratiquant l’hébergement alterné ayant opté pour l’alternance de semaine en semaine.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Frais extraordinaires et loisirs </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Cet élément est de loin celui qui pose le plus de problèmes. Grand oubli de bon nombre de conventions, il est très rare que les parents aient prit un accord très précis à ce sujet. Il n’est pas rare de lire qu’il est prévu que les frais extraordinaires soient partagés. Oui mais, dans quelles proportions ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Le choix du domicile de l’enfant </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Beaucoup des parents de notre échantillon rencontrent des problèmes d’ordre administratif liés à la domiciliation de l’enfant. Outre les implications pratiques, financières, administratives, nous avons pu voir qu’il existait derrière celles‐ci un aspect symbolique parfois extrêmement fort. C’est ainsi que la question de la domiciliation de l’enfant peut tout à fait être le lieu d’un enjeu considérable pour les ex‐conjoints. Certains parents nous ont confié s’être sentis « moins parents » lorsque leur enfant n’était pas domicilié avec eux. La domiciliation des enfants a donc un impact, à la fois pratique, administratif, fiscal, et symbolique.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans la pratique, nous avons constaté que, lorsque le domicile n’était conservé par aucun parent, les enfants étaient généralement domiciliés avec leur mère, celle‐ci procédant au changement d’adresse de l’enfant, dans la foulée du leur, sans se rendre compte du réel impact de leur choix. Par contre, lorsque le domicile est conservé, l’adresse de l’enfant est rarement modifiée et, dans ce cas, quel que soit le parent qui y reste domicilié.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Mutualité et remboursement des soins de santé </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Une partie de notre échantillon, des mères essentiellement, même si leur vécu correspond aussi à celui de quelques pères que nous avons interrogés, ne se sont pas posé la question et garde de manière permanente, la carte SIS en leur possession. Elles se trouvent généralement dans une situation où elles continuent à assumer l’intégralité du versant médical et soins de l’éducation de l’enfant, en dépit de l’instauration d’un hébergement égalitaire et du fait qu’une maladie survienne en dehors de « leur semaine ». Dans pareilles situations, l’autre parent a peu d’intérêt à posséder la carte SIS.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pour une autre part de notre échantillon, cette carte SIS a bien souvent été au centre de querelles, l’un des parents, plus négligeant, ayant perdu la carte à une ou plusieurs reprises.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Très peu de parents connaissent l’existence d’un duplicata renouvelable tous les 2 mois à 6 mois en fonction de l’endroit où il est délivré. Il nous semble cependant qu’il serait utile que cette information soit diffusée.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Les allocations familiales </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il apparaît que dans les cas d’hébergement alterné de type égalitaire, la répartition des allocations familiales se fait rarement tel que cela était prévu par la convention. Les allocations sont alors souvent laissées au parent se trouvant dans la situation économique la plus difficile, il s’agit alors d’une sorte de « compensation ».</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">D’autres parents rencontrés ont témoigné de différents stratagèmes leur permettant de bénéficier des allocations les plus élevées possibles en fonction des logiques de majoration.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il semble qu’une réflexion sur la pertinence de la philosophie des allocations familiales qui favorise financièrement la natalité soit utile. En effet, il n’est peut‐être pas opportun que le rang des enfants détermine le montant perçu, dans un sens progressif, un troisième enfant ne coûtant pas plus cher qu’un premier ‐ bien au contraire.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Les parts contributives </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Sur le plan financier, nous constatons que pour notre volet quantitatif ils sont près de 40% à ne pas percevoir, ni verser de pension alimentaire. A l’inverse, ils sont 51% à soit percevoir (35%), soit verser une pension alimentaire (16%). Ils sont seulement 3% à fonctionner en versant chacun une somme sur un compte commun .</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ce que nous avons appris en menant cette recherche va dans le sens d’un constat de difficultés pratiques concernant l’application de la loi au quotidien. Ces difficultés qui s’avèrent parfois de nature à augmenter les tensions entre ex‐conjoints, voire à rendre les conflits inévitables.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Au fil des témoignages, nous avons à plusieurs occasions constaté que les contributions alimentaires sont un sujet à haut risque dans les relations entre ex‐conjoints. Lorsqu’il y a conflit, le paiement des contributions alimentaires se révèle souvent un enjeu considérable. Selon les situations, elles peuvent ainsi mettre en difficulté tant celui qui les paie, que celui qui est censé les recevoir.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il n’est effectivement pas rare que les parts contributives restent impayées. Dans ce cas, bon nombre de parents attendent que les montants dus soient suffisamment élevés pour que l’action en justice se justifie financièrement. Sans quoi, le parent introduisant une requête devant le tribunal risquerait de dépenser plus d’argent en frais d’avocat que ce qu’il en récupèrerait grâce à la procédure. En rapport avec ces parts contributives non payées, nous avons relevé qu’aucun parent interrogé ne nous a parlé du SECAL. Peut-être ne se trouvaient t‐ils pas dans les conditions financières leur donnant accès à ses services. Peut-être, également, n’en n’ont‐ils pas fait la demande, ignorant l’existence de cet organisme et ses missions.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons également constaté que les personnes rencontrées pensaient que l’hébergement égalitaire excluait qu’une pension alimentaire soit fixée. La loi prévoit pourtant qu’en cas de différence de revenus significative, et malgré l’instauration d’un hébergement égalitaire, l’un des parents peut être contraint de payer une part contributive à l’autre parent dans le but d’égaliser leurs revenus.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Le Logement </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De nombreux témoins nous on dit la difficulté de trouver un logement satisfaisant pour les parents séparés, qui allient à la fois loyer raisonnable, espace suffisant et proximité des lieux extérieurs importants dans la vie de l’enfant (logement de l’autre parent, école, lieux de loisirs,…). Ainsi, de nombreux parents se trouvent assez limités en termes de choix de logement et contraints de vivre dans un logement qui ne convient pas tout à fait aux besoins du ménage. Observons que, le principe de l’hébergement égalitaire augmente le besoin d’un logement de grande taille puisque chaque parent doit disposer d’une habitation adaptée à l’hébergement des enfants, dans de bonnes conditions, une semaine sur deux (ou selon l’alternance choisie).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">En fonction des possibilités financières et/ou d’un manque d’habitation à disposition, certains parents nous ont fait part de périodes de « camping » plus ou moins longs. Dans la plupart des cas, celles‐ci suivaient directement la séparation.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons également rencontré des parents concernés par des demandes de logements sociaux. Si désormais les sociétés de logements sociaux tiennent compte du nombre d’enfants qui habitent réellement dans le ménage (en abandonnant le critère de l’hébergement majoritaire temporellement), les listes d’attente et les budgets serrés risquent bien d’amener à privilégier les ménages qui occupent les lieux à temps plein, au détriment de ceux qui laissent parfois, en fonction de l’alternance de l’hébergement, des chambres inoccupées.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">A nouveau, ici, nous voyons apparaître des arrangements qui permettent au parent introduisant la demande de logement social de mettre plus de « chances » de son côté. Ce qui implique que les ex‐conjoints puissent s’accorder sur ces pratiques par des négociations ou compromis autour de la domiciliation des enfants.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Concernant le domicile anciennement occupé par le couple, nous constatons qu’un des parents rachète généralement la part de l’autre parent. Il est dans ce cas très important pour eux que l’enfant garde ce repère.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans notre échantillon, les parents ayant vendu leur domicile et devant chacun se reloger sont minoritaires. Rappelons que la majorité des parents interrogés sont issus d’un milieu socio‐économique assez favorisé.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• La consommation d’eau </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La consommation d’eau subit une différence de tarification en fonction du nombre de personnes occupant l’habitation. Ainsi, ici le nombre de m³ d’eau à un tarif avantageux est fixé par la domiciliation. Cela implique pour le parent dont les enfants ne sont pas domiciliés chez lui qu’il subisse une tarification d’eau ne correspondant pas à la réelle taille du ménage.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Autres primes, aides, prêts et réductions </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les divers témoignages que nous avons recueillis nous amènent à un même constat, à savoir que les critères d’attribution de ces dernières ne permettent pas de prendre en considération la réalité d’un ménage vivant un hébergement à tendance égalitaire.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Cela signifie donc qu’un parent vivant une situation de fait qui l’amène à être dans les conditions d’octroi d’une prime, d’une aide ou d’une réduction, ne peut guère en bénéficier parce qu’administrativement, les critères d’octroi ne sont pas remplis. Ainsi, le parent est de nouveau confronté à l’écart entre sa situation de fait et sa situation administrative. Certains témoignages expriment particulièrement la complexité du système administratif et ses aspects obsolètes en regard des nombreuses structures familiales existantes. (Par exemple, carte de famille nombreuse, etc.)</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Le transfert des enfants </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Afin d’éviter des confrontations pénibles, nous avons noté que beaucoup de parents se servaient de l’école comme lieu de transfert, privilégiant ainsi la neutralité de l’endroit.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Garde enfant malade </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le constat principal est indépendant du mode d’hébergement mis en place. Ce sont en grande majorité les mères qui s’absentent de leur travail pour garder un enfant malade. Dans la plupart des cas, elles trouvent cependant une solution dés le second jour. Elles font alors appel aux grands‐parents, à des babysitteuses, ou parfois, à des gardes d’enfants malades professionnelles.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Fiscalité </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans le cas d’hébergement alterné, nous avons pu remarquer, au même titre que les allocations familiales, que l’avantage fiscal était souvent laissé au parent éprouvant le plus de difficultés financières, il s’agit alors d’une sorte de compensation.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il est également très répandu qu’un parent, généralement celui pour lequel cela se révèlera le plus avantageux, déclare à lui seul tous les enfants. Dans pareille situation, les parents s’arrangent ensuite entre eux pour fixer le montant qui devra être reversé à celui ne déclarant pas. Ce type d’arrangement repose bien souvent sur l’entente parentale, il est donc assez fragile.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Une minorité de parents demande à bénéficier de l’avantage fiscal partagé.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Vêtements et transport des affaires </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Différentes questions se posent lorsqu’il est question du transfert de l’enfant d’un domicile à l’autre. La première concerne la lessive. La plupart des parents pratiquant l’hébergement alterné de notre échantillon font respectivement la lessive des vêtements de leur enfant. A l’inverse, la quasi‐totalité des parents hébergeant leur enfant de manière principale, assument seuls la corvée de lessive. Ils récupèrent des sacs de linge sale au retour des week‐ends et des vacances.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ensuite, vient la question de l’achat de vêtements. Il apparaît que les mères achètent généralement plus d’habits que les pères, généralement par goût plutôt que par nécessité, ce qui ne les empêchent pas de se sentir lésées sur le plan financier. Beaucoup partagent les frais importants relatifs à l’habillement, par exemple l’achat annuel d’une nouvelle paire de chaussures et d’une veste d’hiver.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La taille des bagages et le nombre d’affaires suivant l’enfant dans ces déplacements ont largement été évoqués par (Il n’accepte plus d’avoir deux gardes robes, livres scolaires, etc.) Ce constat pourrait en partie expliquer un certain abandon de l’hébergement alterné au moment de l’adolescence.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les gros inconvénients relatifs à ce transport d’effets sont les très fréquents oublis que parents et enfants déplorent. Il est alors nécessaire, lorsque les parents le permettent, d’effectuer de nombreux allers‐retours entre les domiciles parentaux.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h5>L’entente parentale</h5>
<p style="text-align:left;">Un lien important peut être établi entre l’entente parentale et les modes d’organisation concrets, surtout si l’on considère qu’en cas d’hébergement égalitaire, la souplesse, la flexibilité, l’apaisement des tensions et la communication sont autant d’ingrédients de poids dans le succès de la mise en place de ce mode d’hébergement.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le questionnaire nous a appris que la formule d’hébergement a été choisie dans la majorité des cas d’un commun accord (44% des réponses). Ils sont 28% à avoir entériné un accord commun par une décision de justice.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">En ce qui concerne la prise de décision avec l’ex‐partenaire, nous voyons lors du volet quantitatif que les prises de décision sont vécues majoritairement sur le mode du désaccord ou de l’absence de discussion. Ainsi, près de 30% de nos répondants estiment n’être jamais d’accord avec leur ancien partenaire lors d’une prise de décision et ils sont 28% à fonctionner sans réel accord, le parent qui héberge prenant la décision seul. Toutefois, ils sont 43% à agir en concertation le plus possible et 20% parmi ceux‐ci considèrent agir de manière tout à fait concertée.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Sur les 58 personnes vivant des difficultés lors des prises de décision avec l’ex‐conjoint, moins de la moitié (48%) ont recours au pouvoir judiciaire pour régler ces questions. Nous pouvons supposer que les désaccords concernent des questions de gestion de la vie quotidienne. Ces questions ne représentant pas assez d’ampleur pour engager des procédures lourdes et couteuses. Il ne s’agit cependant que d’une hypothèse.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nos répondants au questionnaire sont 21% à avoir eu recours à la justice pour faire respecter l’hébergement. Les recours en justice concernent les deux aspects : soit faire respecter un jugement, soit le modifier, soit les deux.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">En se reprnant la typologie décrite par les chercheurs français (2008), F. Brunet, P. Kertudo, S. Malsan, nous pouvons constater que la “coparentalité associative” [6] est le modèle minoritaire dans notre échantillon qualitatif. Il nous semble que ce modèle est plutôt temporaire.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le modèle de la “coparentalité tolérante” ou la “collaboration civilisée” [7] est bien représenté. Nombreux sont ceux qui ont fondé un certain équilibre autour de la recherche du meilleur intérêt de l’enfant.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les parents des deux modèles que nous venons de citer veillent à ce que l’enfant ne soit pas chargé de la communication. Il s’agit d’une pratique qu’ils veulent à tout prix éviter.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les parents dont l’organisation correspond aux deux premiers modèles évoquent une certaine liberté liée au fait que le système mis en place reste souple, flexible et adaptable, notamment lorsqu’il s’agit des dates de départ en vacances.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le troisième modèle, la “biparentalité” ou la “parentalité parallèle” [8] , concerne près de la moitié des parents de notre échantillon. Les tensions au sein des anciens couples restent bien souvent présentes, même si la séparation date de nombreuses années. Les recours à la justice en cas de désaccord ne sont pas rares. La communication est souvent rompue. Lorsque les enfants sont passés d’un hébergement alterné à un hébergement principal exclusif [9] ou lorsqu’ils sont en âge d’être autonomes, la communication entre les parents ne se fait tout simplement plus. Lorsque les enfants sont encore assez jeunes et qu’une forme d’alternance est maintenue, c’est souvent à eux qu’il incombe de faire passer les messages entre leurs parents.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il semble que les situations conflictuelles vont généralement de pair avec la mise en place d’un hébergement principal. Il ne s’agit plus d’un sentiment que d’une réalité statistique. La bonne entente et la flexibilité qui en découle facilitent l’hébergement alterné, mais il semble que leur absence n’empêche pas totalement la mise en place d’un hébergement égalitaire. L’hébergement égalitaire en cas de mésentente est cependant vécu comme étant plus contraignant, l’absence de dialogue entre les parents impliquant une certaines rigidité au niveau de l’organisation.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Enfin, si la souplesse et l’adaptation sont un mode de fonctionnement revendiqué par de nombreux parents, il n’en demeure pas moins que l’équilibre mis en place est souvent fragile, ce qui interroge la viabilité même de l’hébergement sur le long terme. Nous avons effectivement remarqué que certains, tant bien que mal, essaient de maintenir cette entente pour qu’une flexibilité soit encore envisageable. Ces efforts, et parfois ces sacrifices, sont parfois difficiles à tenir sur la longueur.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Pistes de recommandation</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Le rapport à la médiation </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Beaucoup de professionnels défendent l’idée d’un système où la médiation serait un passage obligé, ne serait‐ce que pour une première séance d’information. Le modèle Canadien est d’ailleurs très souvent cité par l’ensemble des professions du droit familial comme étant un idéal à suivre.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Suite à nos constats, il nous semble qu’un important travail d’information et de publicité au sujet de la médiation reste à faire, et ce, tant auprès des professionnels que des parents. Là où les premiers la conseillent peu, les seconds la connaissent à peine.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• La question de la part contributive </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous avons constaté que beaucoup des parents de notre échantillon avaient bien des difficultés à obtenir le paiement des parts contributives mais surtout des frais extraordinaires. Il serait alors utile qu’on envisage de budgétiser ces frais extraordinaires, ce qui constituerait un avantage au point de vue du parent payeur, et une plus grande facilité de réclamation en cas de non paiement pour le receveur. Notons également qu’aucun des parents rencontrés n’a évoqué le SECAL, alors que bon nombre d’entre eux se sont trouvés dans des situations économiquement difficiles notamment parce qu’une part contributive restait impayée. Il nous semble dans ce cas utile de renforcer la publicité concernant le SECAL auprès des parents. Nous avons aussi remarqué que les situations les plus difficiles du point de vue économique surviennent dans les premiers moments de la séparation, lorsqu’aucun jugement n’est encore arrêté. Or, sans jugement, il n’est pas possible de s’adresser au SECAL. Nous pouvons supposer que les parents n’en ont pas parlé parce qu’ils n’étaient pas concernés, leur revenus dépassant le plafond fixé pour pouvoir avoir recours à ce service. Dans ce cas, au vu des difficultés économiques qu’ils ont rencontrées, nous pouvons nous interroger sur la pertinence d’un tel plafond et sur l’éventuelle nécessité de l’augmenter.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Collaboration, information et formation entre les intervenants du droit de la famille </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ce constat nous montre que bon nombre d’éléments vont à l’encontre d’un fonctionnement coordonné et pluridisciplinaire de l’ensemble des intervenants du monde judiciaire. Il nous semble important d’identifier les différents obstacles à cette collaboration et de tenter de mettre en avant différents moyens de les surmonter.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les représentations qu’ont les professions concernant leurs collègues nous semblent constituer un de ces obstacles. Effectivement, ces représentations se traduisent par un discours assez négatif et décourageant vis‐à‐vis des différents métiers entre lesquels une collaboration pourrait être installée. La proposition d’un avocat présent lors du focus group prend alors tout son sens. Il suggère qu’on amène, très tôt dans leur formation, les différents corps de métier du droit familial à communiquer entre eux. Cela aurait pour objectif d’atténuer le développement de représentations erronées à l’encontre des autres professions. L’idée sous‐jacente est que d’une bonne communication naîtra plus de compréhension.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous pourrions également envisager une distribution des rôles entre avocats, juges et médiateurs qui lutterait contre cette impression de concurrence et de dédoublement des compétences.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’information dont disposent les professionnels au sujet de leurs collègues laisse bien souvent à désirer. Ainsi, nous avons remarqué que les professionnels avaient une conception erronée du rôle du médiateur par exemple, ou encore de l’avocat ou des assistants de justice. Ce manque d’informations exactes a pour conséquence que les différents moyens, dont les mesures d’instruction, mis à disposition du juge mais aussi du justiciable sont utilisés et conseillés inadéquatement. Par exemple, peu de professionnels semblent conscients du fait qu’il existe des contre‐indications à la médiation. Il nous semblerait dans ce cas utile d’organiser des rencontres d’informations entre les différents corps de métier quotidiennement appelés à travailler ensemble qui porteraient sur les rôles de chacun mais également sur les propriétés intrinsèques des mesures d’instructions.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Accompagnement du justiciable </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les parents estiment avoir manqué d’écoute, d’information et de soutien lors des procédures. Ce sentiment peut en partie s’expliquer par le phénomène que nous venons de décrire. Ils n’ont pas été orientés, ni même informés de l’existence de la médiation, leur avocat y était peut‐être défavorable. Ils n’ont pas été informés d’autres modalités d’organisation de l’alternance. On leur a expliqué que l’hébergement égalitaire « c’était une semaine sur deux », le juge qui a tranché n’était peut‐être pas partisan de l’hébergement par demi‐semaine chez les tout‐petits, etc.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Outre un travail sur les représentations, sur une redistribution des rôles, sur l’information à disposition des professionnels, il nous semble utile de créer un espace d’accompagnement tant pour les parents, que pour les enfants. Différents professionnels pourraient s’y croiser, fiscaliste, avocat, psychologue, médiateur, etc. Le travail de collaboration pourrait alors en être facilité et les justiciables seraient plus susceptibles d’être orientés plus adéquatement. Beaucoup de parents nous ont confié avoir manqué de ce type d’accompagnement, d’un endroit où ils auraient pu acquérir des informations sur leurs droits mais où ils auraient également pu confier leurs sentiments à une oreille attentive. La nécessité d’offrir un espace de parole neutre aux enfants, sans que leurs propos ne puissent avoir de conséquences, comme c’est le cas lors des auditions d’enfant, à été plébiscitée lors du focus group. Il nous semble qu’un tel espace de paroles pourrait être envisagé au sein d’une cellule accompagnant à la fois les parents et les enfants, chacun dans un espace qui leur est propre.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Relatifs à des situations extrêmes, très peu représentées dans notre échantillon de parents, les professionnels ont souligné l’importance de réviser le système d’accompagnement des plaintes pour non‐représentation. Le recours à l’exécution forcée et l’introduction de la médiation au sein de ces situations ont été présentés comme d’éventuelles clés.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Un projet, le Tribunal des Familles </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le projet du tribunal des familles a longuement et spontanément été abordé par les professionnels du droit de la famille. La grande majorité des magistrats rencontrés y sont favorables. Ils y voient l’occasion de simplifier les procédures aux yeux des parties. Le fait qu’un même juge suive la famille est également pointé comme étant un élément très positif.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Si tous le plébiscitent, peu adhère à l’entièreté du projet tel qu’il leur est présenté. Les Juges aux Référés ne voudraient pas être réduits à l’aspect correctionnel de leur travail, les Juges de Paix s’inquiètent d’une éventuelle perte de leur contentieux familial, les Juges de la Jeunesse doutent qu’il leur restera une charge de travail suffisamment importante et craignent de devoir se réorienter professionnellement, etc. Les avocats espèrent qu’avec la mise en place de ce tribunal, les pratiques vont s’uniformiser, même si d’autres affirment que même un Tribunal des Familles ne modifiera en rien les différences de jurisprudence.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Une majorité y voit l’occasion d’organiser différemment les auditions d’enfants.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Ce dernier point va dans le sens de ce qui a été défendu à la fois par les médiateurs, les avocats et les parents. Beaucoup d’entres eux proposent que les auditions d’enfants soient réalisées par des professionnels de l’écoute. Ils défendent cette suggestion en arguant que dans ces conditions, la parole de l’enfant sera écoutée dans un cadre plus adapté et probablement moins marquant pour l’enfant surtout. Le professionnel de l’écoute serait alors plus à même de distinguer la parole de l’enfant de celle de ses parents et d’identifier un éventuel phénomène d’emprise.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Rencontres pluridisciplinaires </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nous exposions précédemment notre impression selon laquelle le concept d’intérêt de l’enfant serait utilisé par tous et tout le temps, ce qui a pour conséquence de le vider de son sens. Lors du focus group, il a été proposé de revoir la manière dont les professionnels et tout particulièrement les juges, travaillent avec cette notion d’intérêt de l’enfant. Il ne serait plus question de chercher à définir cette notion mais il faudrait offrir à toute personne, avec la légitimité qui lui est propre, la possibilité d’exprimer « sa » vision, de « son » intérêt.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Devant la justice, le processus serait alors démocratique, chacune de ces visions de l’intérêt de l’enfant ayant droit de cité. La mission du juge serait alors de trancher entre plusieurs visions de l’intérêt de l’enfant, dont celle de la société. L’avocat à l’origine de cette suggestion précise que si le juge est rattaché à une vision particulière de l’intérêt de l’enfant, aucun débat ne serait possible au tribunal, il ne resterait plus qu’à espérer tomber sur un juge ayant la même vision de l’intérêt de l’enfant que soi. Or, comme nous l’avons vu, il n’est pas rare que le juge, guidé par ses valeurs personnelles et son vécu, dispose d’une vision bien particulière de l’intérêt de l’enfant. Des rencontres interprofessionnelles, telles que suggérés précédemment, pourraient également avoir un effet sur la représentation qu’ont les juges de certains concepts. La confrontation de plusieurs points de vue et l’échange mèneraient peut‐être à nuancer certaines idées préconçues. La quasi‐totalité des juges que nous avons rencontrés semblaient persuadés de travailler de la meilleure façon qui soit, de prêter attention aux critères les plus pertinents. Or, tous, ou presque, avaient des pratiques différentes et semblaient peu enclins à une éventuelle remise en question. Il nous semble alors utile que de telles rencontres soient organisées dans le but de parvenir à une certaine uniformisation des critères pris en compte par le juge. Il nous semble intéressant qu’ils puissent exposer ce qui les amène à accorder de l’importance à tel ou tel élément en particulier. Ceci contribuerait peut‐être à une certaine harmonisation entre les jurisprudences et à un amoindrissement du phénomène de « juge par juge » tel que décrit par certains.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Adaptation des systèmes administratifs et scolaires </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il serait utile que les écoles s’adaptent aux nouvelles réalités familiales. Par exemple, l’école devrait pouvoir tenir compte de la séparation des parents en diffusant les informations à chacun d’entre eux. Cela nécessiterait alors une augmentation des coûts d’envoi et d’impression. La prise en charge de ceux‐ci par l’école ou par les parents serait à discuter.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La mise en place d’un système de résidence semble assez intéressante. On pourrait ainsi tenir compte du fait qu’un parent héberge son enfant la moitié du temps malgré le fait qu’il ne soit pas domicilié avec lui. Les avantages qui en découleraient restent cependant à préciser (logement social, prêt famille nombreuse, etc.)</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La question des allocations familiales pose également quelques problèmes et mériterait d’être réfléchie.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Il faudrait également une meilleure information des parents au sujet de la possibilité d’obtenir un duplicata de la carte SIS.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>• Création d’un guide destiné aux parents </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Puisque, comme nous l’avons souligné, certaines informations parviennent difficilement aux parents, il nous semblerait utile de distribuer une sorte de guide de quelques pages à tout parent entamant une procédure de divorce ou de séparation. Il serait intéressant qu’il y figure une information claire sur la médiation, sur la nouvelle législation, sur les différents points à considérer lors de la rédaction de la convention (allocations, frais extraordinaire, fiscalité, etc.)</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">[1] Olivier Limet, lors du colloque : Divorce conflictuels et intérêt de l’enfant. L’intérêt de l’enfant : critère ou alibi ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">[2] Document visant à normer, à harmoniser les pratiques des assistants de justice au sein de toutes les Maisons de Justice.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">[3] L’idée sous-jacente est qu’en amenant l’enfant chaque parent risque d’essayer d’influencer les dires de l’enfant en sa faveur, sorte de « bourrage de crâne » effectué sur le trajet vers le bureau de consultation.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">[4] Cette appellation désigne les médiateurs dont les formations de base sont plutôt d’inspiration psycho-sociale, en tous cas, elle concerne ceux qui ne sont ni notaire, ni avocat.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">[5] Thayer, E.S., &amp; Zimmerman, J. (2006). Les enfants‐adultes du divorce. Montréal, Québec : Sciences et Culture.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">[6] cette catégorie renvoie à un modèle de famille, après séparation ou divorce paritaire et négocié, que certains sociologues nomment « la forme associative du fonctionnement familial »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">[7] ce modèle se distingue du précédent pour deux raisons essentielles. Il est exclusivement centré sur les enfants et les liens entre les parents sont moins fréquents et plus lâches. Les relations entretenues par les parents sont cordiales et polies, mais pas amicales.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">[8] ce modèle se distingue très significativement des deux premiers en ce qu’il ne repose pas sur une coparentalité. Il n’y a plus de couple parental à proprement parler mais deux parents. Ceux‐ci s’entendent principalement sur les modalités de circulation des enfants entre eux. En dehors de cette question organisationnelle, ils agissent indépendamment l’un de l’autre.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">[9] C’est-à-dire, sans que l’enfant n’aille chez l’autre parent, même pas un week-end sur deux.</p>
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<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Downloads</strong></p>
<ul style="text-align:left;">
<li><strong><a href="http://fkce.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/rapport.pdf">Rapport Complet (Pdf) &#8211; Université de Liège &#8211; Évaluation de l’instauration de l’hébergement égalitaire dans le cadre d’un divorce ou d’une séparation (2010)</a></strong></li>
<li><strong><a href="http://fkce.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/resume-etude-casman.pdf">Resume étude Casman (Université de Liège) &#8211; Pdf de la resumé de la report en Francais (Pdf of the report summary in French)</a></strong></li>
</ul>
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<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Le succès des parents à mi-temps</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;"><em>Source: Belge – Le Soir Belge &#8211; DORZEE,HUGUES &#8211; Mardi 2 mars 2010</em></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://archives.lesoir.be/famille-une-etude-de-l-ulg-evalue-les-effets-de_t-20100302-00TRTW.html?query=Wathelet&amp;queryor=Wathelet&amp;firstHit=80&amp;by=10&amp;when=-1&amp;sort=datedesc&amp;pos=86&amp;all=4068&amp;nav=1">http://archives.lesoir.be/famille-une-etude-de-l-ulg-evalue-les-effets-de_t-20100302-00TRTW.html?query=Wathelet&amp;queryor=Wathelet&amp;firstHit=80&amp;by=10&amp;when=-1&amp;sort=datedesc&amp;pos=86&amp;all=4068&amp;nav=1</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Famille Une étude de l’ULg évalue les effets de la loi sur l’hébergement égalitaire </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Papa et maman à mi-temps ? La formule semble faire lentement son chemin. Depuis l’entrée en vigueur de la loi du 18 juillet 2006 <em>« tendant à privilégier l’hébergement égalitaire de l’enfant dont les parents sont séparés »</em>, de plus en plus de couples optent pour le mode de garde alternée.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les parties seraient davantage prêtes à se mettre d’accord. Les tribunaux ont visiblement bien intégré le principe. Et le phénomène des « nouveaux pères » se confirme. Mais il reste de nombreux obstacles. Juridiques, administratifs et pratiques, notamment. C’est ce qui ressort d’une vaste étude réalisée par le Panel Démographie familiale (ULg), sous la direction de Marie-Thérèse Casman, pour le compte du secrétaire d’Etat aux Familles, Melchior Wathelet (CDH).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Celle-ci s’appuie sur des enquêtes à la fois quantitatives et qualitatives menées auprès de 119 professionnels (juges, médiateurs, avocats…) et un échantillon de 197 pères, mères et enfants vivant de près une séparation.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Un certain profil de parents.</strong> L’hébergement égalitaire est surtout pratiqué au sein de familles issues de la classe moyenne supérieure. Le profil type ? Employés, détenteurs d’un diplôme universitaire, âgés de 30-40 ans, travaillant à temps plein, mais qui dans 40 % des cas rencontrés, bénéficient d’horaires flexibles. Leur motivation première ? <em>« Le bien-être de l’enfant »</em> (88 % des réponses données), mais également son âge (56 %) et la disponibilité des deux parents (50 %). La majorité de ces ex-conjoints ont opté seuls pour cette formule. Une minorité d’entre eux (31 %) ont eu recours à un tiers (médiateur, ami, conseiller conjugal…).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Proximité et stabilité.</strong> Dans 64 % des cas, les parents habitent à proximité l’un de l’autre (moins de 15 kilomètres). Il s’agit d’une alternance essentiellement hebdomadaire (75 %) – une semaine sur deux, demi-semaine, week-end élargi, etc. La formule a été majoritairement maintenue dans le temps. Seuls 17 % des répondants déclarent avoir changé leur rythme de garde à terme.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La gestion financière ? Dans 72 % des situations rencontrées, chaque parent gère ses dépenses pendant l’hébergement ; dans 54 %, il y a un partage égalitaire ; dans 25 %, les parents utilisent un compte commun.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Des difficultés logistiques.</strong> L’hébergement partagé est aussi source de problèmes qui, souligne Marie-Thérèse Casman (ULg) ont un<em> « impact pratique, administratif, fiscal et symbolique ».</em></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><em>Ici, ce sont les frais extraordinaires et de loisirs. Là, l’achat et le nettoyage des vêtements. Plus loin le bulletin scolaire ou la carte SIS. Il est aussi question du choix du domicile, des allocations familiales laissées le plus souvent au parent qui connaît la situation économique la plus difficile, des éventuelles charges (eau, électricité…) calculées sur un ménage à mi-temps, des primes (isolation, énergie…) que les deux parents voudraient revendiquer, etc. Autant de problèmes pratico-pratiques qui, souligne l’étude de l’ULg, nécessiteraient des avancées concrètes : un guide destiné aux parents, des facilités administratives pour obtenir un duplicata de carte SIS ou le dédoublement des allocations, etc.</em></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Les professionnels partagés.</strong><em> Depuis quelques années, l’hébergement égalitaire gagne donc du terrain. La société a évolué (égalité hommes/femmes, autorité parentale redéfinie, etc.). Même si, comme le souligne l’étude, « ce sont les mères qui assument encore la majorité des tâches liées à l’enfant (médecin, déplacements, scolarité…) » Des « nouveaux pères » qui revendiquent davantage leurs droits ; la magistrature qui s’est rajeunie ; et, bien entendu, la nouvelle loi entrée en vigueur en 2006, qui a été très (et parfois mal) médiatisée : ces trois éléments permettent d’expliquer l’évolution.</em></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><em>Mais, l’enquête du Panel Démographie familiale démontre aussi que cette formule n’est pas applicable tout le temps (lire ci-dessous les arguments des juges) ; que chaque divorce et chaque type d’hébergement doit être traité « au cas par cas » ; que le bilan dressé par les médiateurs (très positif), n’est pas celui des magistrats (mitigés) ou des avocats (assez critiques) ; que la séparation, quelle que soit la formule, appauvrit ; que les parents restent mal informés sur leurs droits et que le coût des procédures (médiation, expertises, frais de justice…) constitue un obstacle important.</em></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><em>Bref, papa, maman et les enfants à mi-temps, ça progresse, mais tout n’est pas rose pour autant.</em></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>PARoles de pères et de Mères</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« J’ai pris conscience que j’avais là du temps pour moi. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« J’ai pu tisser des liens plus profond avec eux. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Avant, je travaillais pas mal le week-end. Depuis la séparation j’ai arrêté. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« J’ai un autre équilibre en tant que femme et que maman. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Il faut passer à côté de tout un pan de la vie de l’enfant, devoir sans cesse changer d’habitudes, supporter le vide laissé par son départ… »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Pendant une semaine, on n’a aucune autorité sur lui, et quand il revient, il faut deux, trois jours d’adaptation. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Il ne sait pas cuisiner, c’est toujours des plats tout faits, ma fille a pris 20 kg en 3 ans. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Ici, il y a toujours des limites pour le dodo, la télé. Chez son père, elle fait ce qu’elle veut. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« C’est l’enjeu de la séparation, accorder la même liberté à l’autre. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>PAROLEs de jeunes</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« De toute façon, ils ne s’entendaient plus, depuis des années, ne se parlaient plus, ne dormaient plus dans la même chambre, je pense qu’ils ont bien fait de se séparer. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Ils se tiraient dans les pattes, mais ils ont quand même réussi à se mettre d’accord là-dessus. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« La décision s’est prise de commun accord, mais ça n’a pas été immédiatement possible. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« La grande question qu’on nous posait, c’était : “qui préfères-tu ?“ Je me rappelle qu’on nous tenait éveillés pour ça. Avec mon frère, on s’était drillé à répondre : les deux. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Je me rappelle que j’avais toujours mes affaires partout. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Ça m’a permis de créer des liens vraiment plus forts, on ne s’adressait pas à un binôme mais à un être humain. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Je perdais à chaque fois mes repères. J’avais du mal avec la discontinuité, l’instabilité. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>PAROLES DE JUGES</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Il y a de plus en plus d’accords, peut être aussi au fond, parce qu’on ne vit plus de la même manière. Peut-être aussi que la mentalité des femmes a évolué, peut être qu’elles en ont marre. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« La loi est venue soutenir un changement qui existait déjà. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« C’est une pétition de principe pour des gens bourgeois qui ont la possibilité et qui s’entendent, si on ne s’entend pas ça n’est pas praticable. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Le législateur est resté volontairement très flou. Il a utilisé des termes qui laissaient aux juges la plénitude de ce qu’ils pouvaient faire. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« C’est vraiment au cas par cas. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« L’inconvénient, c’est le coût engendré par l’hébergement égalitaire, chacun des parents doit avoir un espace vital suffisant. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Une semaine sur deux, ça permet aux parents de souffler. Ça permet à chacun d’assumer. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Cela permet de lutter contre le syndrome de Héron, ces enfants élevés sur une seule patte, ce n’est jamais bon. »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>L’Hébergement égalitaire</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les « plus »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les enfants peuvent conserver des liens étroits avec les deux parents à part égale. Ceux-ci peuvent retrouver une certaine liberté, du temps pour eux, s’investir différemment dans leur vie professionnelle, etc. Cette formule permet aux enfants d’être davantage autonomes.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les « moins »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’instabilité, les déplacements, le fait de devoir tout dédoubler (chambre, garde-robe…), la vie « en deux temps » pour les parents, l’obligation pour les enfants de devoir gérer deux styles de vie et de retrouver leurs repères, etc.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’opposition des juges</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans l’étude de l’ULg, les juges exposent plusieurs raisons pour lesquelles la « garde alternée » est difficile à mettre en place : les divergences philosophiques (un mariage mixte, deux religions…) ; la disponibilité (un parent travail beaucoup, l’autre pas) ; l’absence de dialogue entre les ex-conjoints ; des enfants en bas âge ; un niveau de vie très différent ; l’éloignement géographique, etc.</p>
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<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Etude de l’ULg sur les effets de la loi sur l’hébergement égalitaire</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">Source: La CODE (La Coordination des ONG pour les Droits de l’Enfant) &#8211; <a title="Enregistrer au format PDF" href="http://www.lacode.be/spip.php?page=article_pdf&amp;id_article=222"></a> Actualité mise en ligne le 8 mars 2010</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://www.lacode.be/etude-de-l-ulg-sur-les-effets-de.html">http://www.lacode.be/etude-de-l-ulg-sur-les-effets-de.html</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Lien vers l’étude</strong>: <a href="http://www.lesfamilles.be/documents/Rapport.pdf">http://www.lesfamilles.be/documents/Rapport.pdf</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De plus en plus de couples optent pour le mode de garde alternée et le phénomène des &#8220;nouveaux pères&#8221; se confirme depuis l’entrée en vigueur de la loi de 2006 relative à l’hébergement égalitaire de l’enfant dont les parents sont séparés, selon une étude de l’ULg pour le compte du secrétaire d’Etat aux Familles, Melchior Wathelet (cdH).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’étude, réalisée par le Panel Démographie familiale (ULg) auprès de 119 professionnels et 197 pères, mères et enfants vivant de près une séparation, montre que l’hébergement égalitaire est surtout pratiqué au sein de familles issues de la &#8220;classe moyenne supérieure&#8221;. La motivation première est le bien-être de l’enfant.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’hébergement égalitaire est cependant source de problèmes pratiques comme par exemple les frais extraordinaires, les loisirs, ou encore le nettoyage des vêtements et la carte SIS. L’étude de l’ULg estime que ces difficultés nécessitent des avancées concrètes comme un guide destiné aux parents ou des facilités administratives.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">L’étude révèle aussi que ce sont les mères qui assument encore la majorité des tâches liées à l’enfant mais que des &#8220;nouveaux pères&#8221; revendiquent davantage leurs droits.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pour le secrétaire d’Etat aux Familles, Melchior Wathelet, qui a présenté cette étude lundi au Parlement, les priorités sont désormais l’intensification de la médiation familiale et la création d’un tribunal de la famille pour lequel il veut déposer un projet de loi en avril.</p>
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<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Etude  concernant l’h ébergement égalitair e des enfants</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">Source: [Belsoc Infos] Eric Vermeesch &#8211; Wed, 15 Apr 2009 03:06:35 -0700</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">From: port&#8230;@lesfamilles.be</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Newsletter du 15/04/2009</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Etude</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Etude concernant l’application de la loi sur l’hébergement égalitaire  des enfants dans le cadre d’un divorce ou d’une séparation</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">En 1960, on a dénombré 65.220 mariages pour 4.589 divorces. En 2007,  les mariages se réduisaient à 45.561 mariages tandis que les divorces  étaient multipliés : 30.081 divorces.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">On le constate bien : les pratiques de mariages et de divorces ont  évolué grandement ces quelques dernières dizaines d’années. Dans ce  contexte, la législation a évolué jusqu’à l’instauration, en juillet  2006, de la loi concernant l’hébergement des enfants en cas de divorce  ou de séparation des parents.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Cette loi prévoit que si les deux parents formulent une demande  d’hébergement égalitaire des enfants, le tribunal devra entériner cet  accord, sauf s’il existe des éléments contraires à l’intérêt de l’enfant  et/ou des deux parents. Plus précisément, le texte de loi déclare que «  lorsque les parents n’habitent pas ensemble et qu’ils saisissent le  tribunal, l’accord relatif à l’hébergement des enfants doit être  homologué par le tribunal sauf caractéristiques allant à l’encontre de  l’intérêt des enfants. ».</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Par ailleurs, en cas de désaccord et d’autorité parentale conjointe,  le tribunal examine prioritairement la possibilité de fixer  l’hébergement égalitaire entre les parents. Mais il faut qu’au moins un  des parents en fasse la demande. Si le juge décide d’un autre type  d’hébergement que l’hébergement égalitaire, il devra le motiver tout  particulièrement.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le Secrétariat d’Etat à la Politique des Familles a chargé le service  Panel Démographie Familiale, coordonné par Marie-Thérèse Casman  (Institut des Sciences humaines et sociales de l’Université de Liège) de  réaliser une étude dans l’objectif de mieux appréhender l’application  de cette loi sur l’hébergement égalitaire à l’heure actuelle.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pourquoi avoir choisi la résidence alternée ? Quels en sont les  avantages ? Les difficultés ? Ou, au contraire, pourquoi avoir opté pour  un autre type de garde ? Comment se déroule l’organisation quotidienne ?  Quelles améliorations peut-on apporter à la loi ? &#8230; ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pour mener à bien cette recherche, nous désirons rencontrer tant des  professionnels qui travaillent autour de cette législation que des  parents ayant divorcé ou s’étant séparés, et ce, quel que soit le mode  d’hébergement choisi. Des témoignages sont essentiels afin de mieux  connaître les situations vécues et contribuer ainsi à élaborer des  propositions d’amélioration de cette loi.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans le cadre du recueil des témoignages de parents, la participation  à cette recherche peut se concrétiser de deux manières :</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">- rencontrer un chercheur pour un entretien (environ une heure).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">- répondre au questionnaire en ligne publié sur ce site :</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://www.hfinformatique.be/hebergementegalitaire">http://www.hfinformatique.be/hebergementegalitaire</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Bien entendu, l’anonymat et la confidentialité des propos sont  scrupuleusement respectés.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les chercheurs se tiennent à votre disposition pour vous apporter de  plus amples informations et seraient ravis de bénéficier de votre  témoignage.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Coordonnées des chercheurs :</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Angèle César (ace&#8230;@ulg.ac.be)</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Charline Waxweiler (charline.waxwei&#8230;@ulg.ac.be)</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Téléphone : 04 366 21 85</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Adresse postale : Panel Démographie Familiale – Institut des Sciences  humaines et sociales de l’Université de Liège – Chemin du Trèfle, 1  (Bât. B13) – 4000 Liège</p>
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<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Recherche  sur l&#8217;hébergement égalitaire</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">Source: [Belsoc Infos] &#8211; Fri, 10 Apr 2009</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://www.mail-archive.com/belsocinfos@yahoogroupes.fr/msg00360.html">http://www.mail-archive.com/belsocinfos@yahoogroupes.fr/msg00360.html</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Université des Femmes</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Fri, 10 Apr 2009 11:01:44 -0700</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Recherche</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">PARENTS SÉPARES OU DIVORCES AYANT OPTE OU NON POUR L&#8217;HÉBERGEMENT  ÉGALITAIRE</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Madame, Monsieur,</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Le Secrétariat d&#8217;État à la Politique des Familles a chargé le service  Panel Démographie Familiale (Institut des Sciences humaines et sociales  de l&#8217;Université de Liège) d&#8217;évaluer la loi sur l&#8217;hébergement  égalitaire. Cette loi prévoit que l&#8217;hébergement de l&#8217;enfant soit  préférentiellement partagé entre le domicile du père et celui de la  mère.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La participation à cette recherche peut se concrétiser de deux  manières :</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">- rencontrer un chercheur pour un entretien (environ une heure-nous  nous déplaçons).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">- répondre au questionnaire en ligne publié à cette adresse :</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://www.hfinformatique.be/hebergementegalitaire">http://www.hfinformatique.be/hebergementegalitaire</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Des témoignages (le votre ou celui de vos contacts) sont essentiels  pour mieux connaître les situations vécues et contribuer ainsi à  apporter des améliorations à cette loi.Bien entendu, l&#8217;anonymat et la  confidentialité des propos seront scrupuleusement respectés.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Pourquoi avoir choisi la résidence alternée ? Quels en sont les  avantages?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Les difficultés ? Ou, au contraire, pourquoi avoir opté pour un autre  type de garde ? Comment se déroule l&#8217;organisation quotidienne ? Quelles  améliorations peut-on apporter à la loi ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">En espérant bénéficier de votre collaboration, nous vous remercions  de votre attention et restons à votre disposition pour vous donner de  plus amples informations.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Cordialement,</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Angèle César &amp; Charline Waxweiler</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Chargées de recherche</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Panel Démographie Familiale</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Institut des Sciences humaines et sociales de l’Université de Liège</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Chemin du Trèfle, 1 (Bât. B13) 4000 Liège</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">ace&#8230;@ulg.ac.be</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">charline.waxwei&#8230;@ulg.ac.be</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">04 366 21 85</p>
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<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://forum.fede.fpms.ac.be/index.php?topic=1684.msg9675#msg9675"><br />
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<h2><a href="http://forum.fede.fpms.ac.be/index.php?topic=1684.msg9675#msg9675">Appel à témoin: recherche hébergement égalitaire (ULg)</a></h2>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Source: Thomas Ulg</strong> &#8211; « <strong>le:</strong> Novembre 25, 2009, 15:57:29 »</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://forum.fede.fpms.ac.be/index.php?topic=1684.0">http://forum.fede.fpms.ac.be/index.php?topic=1684.0</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">« Le Secrétariat d’Etat à la Politique des Familles a chargé le service Panel Démographie Familiale, coordonné par Marie-Thérèse Casman (Institut des Sciences humaines et sociales de l’Université de Liège), de mener une étude dans l’objectif de mieux appréhender l’application de la loi sur l’hébergement égalitaire des enfants (2006) en cas de séparation des parents.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Dans ce contexte, outre des professionnels travaillant dans ce domaine et des parents divorcés ou séparés, nous souhaiterions rencontrer un certain nombre d&#8217;enfants ayant vécu l&#8217;hébergement alterné.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">C&#8217;est pour cela que je fais appel à vous: avez-vous vécu ce type d&#8217;hébergement? Comment l’avez-vous vécu ou le vivez-vous encore ? Quels souvenirs en gardez-vous ? Quelles améliorations peut-on apporter à la loi ? Quelle relation entretenez-vous aujourd’hui avec vos parents ? Que pensez-vous de l’hébergement alterné ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">La participation à cette recherche consiste à rencontrer un chercheur pour un entretien d’environ une heure. (Nous nous déplaçons) Les données recueillies ne seront utilisées que dans le cadre de l’étude. Bien entendu, l’anonymat et la confidentialité des propos seront scrupuleusement respectés.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Si vous souhaitez participer ou recevoir plus d&#8217;infos, n&#8217;hésitez pas à nous contacter :</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Thomas Englebert</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Stagiaire</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="mailto:thomas.englebert@student.ulg.ac.be">thomas.englebert@student.ulg.ac.be</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Angèle César</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">chargée de recherche</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="mailto:acesar@ulg.ac.be">acesar@ulg.ac.be</a></p>
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<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Co-ouderschap na scheiding kent steeds meer succes</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">Bron: België &#8211; Goed Gevoel &#8211; Scheiden &#8211; (1074264) &#8211; 02/03/10 06u38</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://www.goedgevoel.be/gg/nl/530/Scheiden/article/detail/1074264/2010/03/02/Co-ouderschap-na-scheiding-kent-steeds-meer-succes.dhtml">http://www.goedgevoel.be/gg/nl/530/Scheiden/article/detail/1074264/2010/03/02/Co-ouderschap-na-scheiding-kent-steeds-meer-succes.dhtml</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Almaar meer koppels kiezen voor co-ouderschap als verblijfsregeling  voor de kinderen na een echtscheiding. Dat blijkt uit een studie die de  Universiteit van Luik uitvoerde in opdracht van staatssecretaris voor  het Gezinsbeleid Melchior Wathelet (cdH). Met de studie wil Wathelet de  echtscheidingswet uit 2007 evalueren.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Vooral in hogere middenklasse</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Uit de studie blijkt dat de formule van co-ouderschap vooral populair  is in de hogere middenklasse. De belangrijkste reden om ervoor te  kiezen, is het welzijn van het kind.<strong> </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong> </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Praktische problemen</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Er duiken soms wel praktische problemen op bij co-ouderschap, zoals  rond buitengewone kosten, hobby&#8217;s, de was of de SIS-kaart. De Luikse  onderzoekers suggereren dat daarvoor concrete maatregelen nodig zijn  zoals een begeleidende gids voor de ouders.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nog volgens de studie zijn het vooral de moeders die de praktische  taken rond het kind op zich nemen. Voor staatssecretaris Wathelet liggen  de prioriteiten bij een nog betere uitbouw van familiale bemiddeling.  Hij werkt ook aan de installatie van een nieuwe familierechtbank.  (belga/lb)</p>
<ul style="text-align:left;">
<li><a href="http://www.goedgevoel.be/gg/nl/530/Scheiden/index.dhtml">volledig  dossier: Scheiden</a></li>
</ul>
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<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Co-ouderschap  wint aan populariteit</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">Bron: België &#8211; Hbvl.be &#8211; <a href="http://www.hbvl.be/she/jij-en-je-gezin/aid907324/co-ouderschap-wint-aan-populariteit.aspx#rcomments">0  reacties</a> &#8211; 03/03/2010</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://www.hbvl.be/she/jij-en-je-gezin/aid907324/co-ouderschap-wint-aan-populariteit.aspx">http://www.hbvl.be/she/jij-en-je-gezin/aid907324/co-ouderschap-wint-aan-populariteit.aspx</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">03/03 Het co-ouderschap wint stilaan aan populariteit. Volgens een  onderzoek van staatssecretaris voor het Gezinsbeleid <a title="Melchior  Wathelet" href="http://www.hbvl.be/krantenkoppen/zoeken/melchior-wathelet.aspx?q=en_blZ81%21kCT7x5Hv1uCvGHKnHJ3QnFf8WP&amp;g=melchior+wathelet">Melchior  Wathelet</a> kiezen steeds meer ouders voor co-ouderschap.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Tijdens een scheiding verschuift de aandacht steeds meer naar de  kinderen. Ouders proberen een regeling te vinden die de kinderen het  minst schaadt, en dat vinden ze in co-ouderschap. Als negatieve punt  kaarten heel wat ouders echter de financiële rompslomp aan. Zo is het  nog moeilijk om overeen te komen als er buitengewone kosten zijn of  wanneer het adres voor de sis-kaart moet worden bepaald.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;-<br />
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<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Co-ouderschap  kent steeds meer succes</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">Bron: België &#8211; Knack &#8211; Nieuws &#8211; Mensen &#8211; 02 maart 2010 om 09u00</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://knack.rnews.be/nl/actualiteit/nieuws/mensen/co-ouderschap-kent-steeds-meer-succes/article-1194707513197.htm">http://knack.rnews.be/nl/actualiteit/nieuws/mensen/co-ouderschap-kent-steeds-meer-succes/article-1194707513197.htm</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><em>Co-ouderschap kent steeds meer succes </em></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Almaar meer koppels kiezen voor co-ouderschap als  verblijfsregeling voor de kinderen na een echtscheiding. Dat blijkt uit  een studie die de Universiteit van Luik uitvoerde in opdracht van  staatssecretaris voor het Gezinsbeleid Melchior Wathelet (cdH). </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Met de studie, waarvan de resultaten dinsdag gepubliceerd zijn in De  Standaard en Le Soir, wil Wathelet de echtscheidingswet uit 2007  evalueren.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Hogere middenklasse</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Uit de studie blijkt dat de formule van co-ouderschap vooral populair  is in de hogere middenklasse. De belangrijkste reden om ervoor te  kiezen is het welzijn van het kind.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Er duiken soms wel een aantal praktische problemen bij co-ouderschap,  zoals rond buitengewone kosten, hobby&#8217;s, de was of de SIS-kaart.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De Luikse onderzoekers suggereren dat daarvoor concrete maatregelen  nodig zijn zoals een begeleidende gids voor de ouders.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Nog volgens de studie zijn het vooral de moeders die de praktische  taken rond het kind op zich nemen.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Voor staatssecretaris Wathelet liggen de prioriteiten bij een nog  betere uitbouw van familiale bemiddeling. Hij werkt ook aan de  installatie van een nieuwe familierechtbank.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Meer over: <a href="http://knack.rnews.be/nl/actualiteit/tag/gezinnen.htm">gezinnen</a>,  <a href="http://knack.rnews.be/nl/actualiteit/tag/co-ouderschap.htm">co-ouderschap</a>,  <a href="http://knack.rnews.be/nl/actualiteit/tag/echtscheiding.htm">echtscheiding</a></p>
<ul style="text-align:left;">
<li><strong><a href="http://knack.rnews.be/nieuws/belgie/hoe-uw-leven-is-veranderd/site72-section24-article44392.html" target="blank">Lees ook: hoe uw leven is veranderd?</a></strong></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:left;">&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;-<br />
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<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>De Staatssecretaris voor Gezinsbeleid lanceert een studie betreffende de toepassing van de wet op het gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf van kinderen</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">Bron: België &#8211; Het gezinsportaal – Actualiteit &#8211; <em>23/04/2009</em></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://www.lesfamilles.be/portail/public/pages/?lang=2&amp;rub=rubActu">http://www.lesfamilles.be/portail/public/pages/?lang=2&amp;rub=rubActu</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">In 1960 werden er 65.220 huwelijken en 4.589 echtscheidingen geteld. In 2007 daalde het aantal huwelijken naar 45.561 terwijl het aantal echtscheidingen opliep tot 30.081.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Het aangaan van een huwelijk alsook een echtscheiding is in de loop van de laatste decennie fors geëvolueerd, zoveel is duidelijk. In deze context onderging de wetgeving verschillende wijzigingen met onder andere de invoering, in juli 2006, van de wet betreffende het verblijf van de kinderen in geval van een (echt)scheiding van de ouders.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Deze wet bepaalt dat indien beide ouders een gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf van de kinderen wensen, de rechtbank dit akkoord zal moeten bekrachtigen, behalve indien er elementen bestaan die strijdig zijn met het belang van het kind en/of de beide ouders.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">In geval van onenigheid en gezamenlijk ouderlijk gezag, zal de rechtbank overigensin de eerste plaats de mogelijkheid tot een gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf tussen de ouders onderzoeken. Maar tenminste één van de ouders moet hierom verzoeken. Indien de rechter een andere verblijfsregeling beslist dan het gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf, zal hij dit in het bijzonder moeten motiveren.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Naast het werk van de Staatssecretaris voor Gezinsbeleid, Melchior Wathelet, en de Minister van Justitie voor de inrichting van een familierechtbank die bevoegd zou zijn voor de berechting van alle familiale conflicten, heeft Melchior Wathelet eveneens opdracht gegeven aan de “service Panel Démographie Familiale”, geleid door Marie-Thérèse Casman (Institut des Sciences humaines et sociales de l&#8217;Université de Liège) een onderzoek te voeren met als doelstelling een beter beeld te krijgen van de huidige toepassing van deze wet op het gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Vanwaar de keuze voor het afwisselend verblijf ? Wat zijn de voordelen? De moeilijkheden ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Of, integendeel, vanwaar de keuze voor een andere verblijfsregeling ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Hoe verloopt de dagelijkse organisatie ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Hoe beleven de ouders en de kinderen dit gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Welke verbeteringenkunnen er in de wet worden aangebracht ? &#8230; ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Getuigenissen, zowel van beroepsmensen die rond deze wetgeving werken als van ouders die een (echt)scheiding achter de rug hebben, zijn van essentieel belang om een beter inzicht te krijgen in hoe deze situaties ervaard worden en om de wet aan te passen indien dit wenselijk blijkt.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Teneinde getuigenissen van ouders te verzamelen, nodigt de Staatssecretaris voor Gezinsbeleid u uit om de vragenlijst te beantwoorden op onderstaande site :</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://www.hfinformatique.be/gelijkmatigverdeeldehuisvesting" target="_blank">http://www.hfinformatique.be/gelijkmatigverdeeldehuisvesting</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">U heeft ook de mogelijkheid tot een onderhoud met een onderzoeksmedewerker (ongeveer één uur).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De anonimiteit en vertrouwelijkheid van het gesprek worden uiteraard nauwgezet gerespecteerd.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De Staatssecretaris voor Gezinsbeleid alsook de onderzoeksmedewerkers blijven geheel te uwer beschikking voor meer informatie en verheugen zich over uw getuigenis.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Gegevens onderzoeksmedewerkers :</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Angèle César (<a href="mailto:acesar@ulg.ac.be">acesar@ulg.ac.be</a>)</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Charline Waxweiler (<a href="mailto:Charline.Waxweiler@ulg.ac.be">Charline.Waxweiler@ulg.ac.be</a>)</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Telefoon : 04 366 21 85</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Adres : Panel Démographie Familiale · Institut des Sciences humaines et sociales de l&#8217;Université de Liège · Chemin du Trèfle, 1 (Bât. B13) · 4000 Liège</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><em>23/04/2009</em></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;-<br />
&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;-</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<h2>Melchior Wathelet lanceert een studie betreffende de toepassing van de wet op het gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf van kinderen</h2>
<p style="text-align:left;">Bron: België &#8211; Melchior Wathelet – Federaal Staatssecretaris van Gezinszaken &#8211; Nieuws – Gezinsbeleid &#8211; 04 apr 2009</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://www.melchiorwathelet.be/index.php?mact=News,cntnt01,detail,0&amp;cntnt01articleid=108&amp;cntnt01returnid=313&amp;hl=nl_NL">http://www.melchiorwathelet.be</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<hr size="2" />
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong> </strong><strong> </strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
<p style="text-align:left;">In 1960 werden er 65.220 huwelijken en 4.589 echtscheidingen geteld. In 2007 daalde het aantal huwelijken naar 45.561 terwijl het aantal echtscheidingen opliep tot 30.081. Het aangaan van een huwelijk alsook een echtscheiding is in de loop van de laatste decennie fors geëvolueerd, zoveel is duidelijk. In deze context onderging de wetgeving verschillende wijzigingen met onder andere de invoering, in juli 2006, van de wet betreffende het verblijf van de kinderen in geval van een (echt)scheiding van de ouders.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Deze wet bepaalt dat indien beide ouders een gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf van de kinderen wensen, de rechtbank dit akkoord zal moeten bekrachtigen, behalve indien er elementen bestaan die strijdig zijn met het belang van het kind en/of de beide ouders.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">In geval van onenigheid en gezamenlijk ouderlijk gezag, zal de rechtbank overigensin de eerste plaats de mogelijkheid tot een gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf tussen de ouders onderzoeken. Maar tenminste één van de ouders moet hierom verzoeken. Indien de rechter een andere verblijfsregeling beslist dan het gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf, zal hij dit in het bijzonder moeten motiveren.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Naast het werk van de Staatssecretaris voor Gezinsbeleid, Melchior Wathelet, en de Minister van Justitie voor de inrichting van een familierechtbank die bevoegd zou zijn voor de berechting van alle familiale conflicten, heeft Melchior Wathelet eveneens opdracht gegeven aan de “service Panel Démographie Familiale”, geleid door Marie-Thérèse Casman (Institut des Sciences humaines et sociales de l’Université de Liège) een onderzoek te voeren met als doelstelling een beter beeld te krijgen van de huidige toepassing van deze wet op het gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Vanwaar de keuze voor het afwisselend verblijf ? Wat zijn de voordelen? De moeilijkheden ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Of, integendeel, vanwaar de keuze voor een andere verblijfsregeling ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Hoe verloopt de dagelijkse organisatie ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Hoe beleven de ouders en de kinderen dit gelijkmatig verdeeld verblijf ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Welke verbeteringen kunnen er in de wet worden aangebracht ? &#8230; ?</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Getuigenissen, zowel van beroepsmensen die rond deze wetgeving werken als van ouders die een (echt)scheiding achter de rug hebben, zijn van essentieel belang om een beter inzicht te krijgen in hoe deze situaties ervaard worden en om de wet aan te passen indien dit wenselijk blijkt.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Teneinde getuigenissen van ouders te verzamelen, nodigt de Staatssecretaris voor Gezinsbeleid u uit om de vragenlijst te beantwoorden op onderstaande site :</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><a href="http://www.hfinformatique.be/gelijkmatigverdeeldehuisvesting">http://www.hfinformatique.be/gelijkmatigverdeeldehuisvesting</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">U heeft ook de mogelijkheid tot een onderhoud met een onderzoeksmedewerker (ongeveer één uur).</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De anonimiteit en vertrouwelijkheid van het gesprek worden uiteraard nauwgezet gerespecteerd.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">De Staatssecretaris voor Gezinsbeleid alsook de onderzoeksmedewerkers blijven geheel te uwer beschikking voor meer informatie en verheugen zich over uw getuigenis.</p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Gegevens onderzoeksmedewerkers :</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Angèle César (<a href="mailto:acesar@ulg.ac.be">acesar@ulg.ac.be</a>)</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Charline Waxweiler (<a href="mailto:Charline.Waxweiler@ulg.ac.be">Charline.Waxweiler@ulg.ac.be</a>)</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Telefoon : 04 366 21 85</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">Adres : <strong>Panel</strong> <strong>Démographie</strong> <strong>Familiale</strong> – Institut des Sciences humaines et sociales de l’Université de Liège – Chemin du Trèfle, 1 (Bât. B13) – 4000 Liège</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;-<br />
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		<title>Australia’s Shared Parenting Experiment (Whiston, 2009)</title>
		<link>http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/2009/09/13/1/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sun, 13 Sep 2009 08:07:21 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Father Knowledge Centre</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Australia]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Australian Shared Parental Responsibility Act 2006]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Equal parenting]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Family Court]]></category>
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		<category><![CDATA[Part VII of the Australian Family Law Act 1975]]></category>
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		<description><![CDATA[An overview of marriage, divorce and the new custody laws in Australia By Robert Whiston FRSA, Sept 13th 2009 Every English speaking country around the globe has been trying for years to reach the point now achieved by Australia, namely the enacting of ‘shared parenting’. The goal is to make matters a little more equitable&#160;&#8230; <a href="http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/2009/09/13/1/">Read&#160;more</a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=sharedparenting.wordpress.com&amp;blog=1566479&amp;post=4&amp;subd=sharedparenting&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a name="top1"></a></p>
<h2><strong>An overview of marriage, divorce and the new custody laws in Australia</strong></h2>
<p><em>By Robert Whiston FRSA, Sept 13<sup>th</sup> 2009</em></p>
<p>Every English speaking country around the globe has been trying for years to reach the point now achieved by Australia, namely the enacting of ‘shared parenting’. The goal is to make matters a little more equitable for divorced fathers and the judicial “orphaning” effect on children less severe.</p>
<p>In Britain, Canada, and New Zealand, for example, all attempts at a more egalitarian division of children&#8217;s time after divorce have been stonewalled using the same rehearsed argument once voiced in Australia.</p>
<p>Mindless chanting is fine for domestic audiences but why, if it is so impossible to arrange, can the French, Dutch, Swedes and Belgians have the wit that Anglophones lack ? Why not tell the public the truth – explain how and why it is we ‘Anglos’ can’t manage it</p>
<p>Shared Parenting in Australia was made possible by the introduction of <em>Family Law Amendment (Shared Parental Responsibility) Act 2006. </em>This reformed<em> </em>Part VII of the <em>Family Law Act 1975.</em></p>
<p>The most significant aspect of this reform was the introduction of a <em>rebuttable presumption</em> of ‘equal shared parental responsibility’. In particular, the concurrent obligation placed on family courts to consider ‘equal time’ and ‘substantial and significant time’ arrangements where the presumption applies.</p>
<p>Australia’s legal reform saw the introduction of ‘parenting plans’ which it was stated in the Act would help determine what actually was in the child’s best interests.</p>
<p>The “child’s best interests” is both a legacy and an obstacle. No where is there a definitive criterion and no where is it anyone but 3<sup>rd</sup> party adults and professionals deciding what is in the parents’ and child’s best interests.(and at last academia and the mainstream media is beginning to recognise the anomaly).<a href="#f1"> [1]</a></p>
<p>In an attempt to tackle this intellectual and philosophical deficit and reconcile parents, the Act divided considerations of the child’s best interests into two categories, 1). primary considerations and 2). additional considerations. These considerations are intended to form the basis of custody awards.</p>
<p><em>(NB. There seems to be an in-built assumption in the Act that only cases where the parents are in dispute does it necessitate them going to court for a ruling &#8211; RW).</em></p>
<p>In common with reforms in Belgium and Holland, resources were made available in Australia for the reconciliation of differences between parents and to help separating parents reach their own agreements.</p>
<p>At the same time as the Government implemented these legislative changes it also established <em>Family Relationship</em><em> Centres</em> around Australia and funded other non-Government organisations (NGO) to provide parents with advice, counselling and mediation</p>
<p>It is interesting to note that all the topics alluded to so far have been put to the Lord Chancellor’s Dept (LCD) and the Ministry of Justice by Britain’s fathers groups since 2001 but to no avail.</p>
<p>It was anticipated that the majority of cases in Australia would be settled ‘amicably’ without court intervention. It was foreseen that only the more ‘intractable cases’ would reach court.</p>
<p>The implication of this is that whereas previously ‘the shadow of the court’ promoted sole custody arrangements with men not likely to challenge for better custody, the reforms of 2006 meant that equal and shared parenting was likely to grow, both through court awards and by off-the-balance-sheet arrangements, i.e. the shadow of the law effect.</p>
<p>It must surely come as a surprise to fathers everywhere that Australia’s Chief Justice suddenly decided that custody awards merited the keeping of statistics &#8211; said by a government source to be ‘a first’ for Australia’ judiciary.</p>
<p>The idea, apparently, was to “understand the results that were being obtained by the parties coming to court.” Why was this not being done already ? (This was a recommendation made to CAFCASS in LCD committee in 2000 by Britain’s fathers groups).</p>
<p>By the end of 2008 enough data had been gathered for the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) to make some basic and tentative assessment. The number of finalised cases totalled 1,448 and the number where “early agreements” had been reached was 2,719 (2007 &#8211; 2008).</p>
<p>These judicial statistics have to be measured against the larger number that are not decided by courts, made informally in the shadow of the law (and these figures do not relate to orders made in the Federal Magistrates’ Court).</p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<div id="attachment_9" class="wp-caption alignnone" style="width: 590px"><em><em><a href="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/20090302familycourtofaustralia_sharedparentingstatistics1.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-9" title="20090302FamilyCourtOfAustralia_SharedParentingStatistics1" src="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/20090302familycourtofaustralia_sharedparentingstatistics1.jpg?w=640" alt="Fig 1. Shared parental responsibility – Time spent with parents  - Family Court of Australia, 2009"   /></a></em></em><p class="wp-caption-text">Fig. 1. Click for enlargement - Shared parental responsibility – Time spent with parents (Source: Family Court of Australia, Shared parental responsibility - Statistics in cases conducted in the Family Court of Australia during 2007–08, 2 March 2009)</p></div>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>In the diagram above (Fig1; Click for enlargement) the left most columns represents with whom the child spent the majority of their time. At nearly 70% are mothers with “consent orders”. The next column in the group, at 60%, is mothers with “final order papers”. A round 8% are fathers with “consent orders” and at 17% (light blue) are fathers with “final order papers”.</p>
<p>The next series of columns (and much shorter) reflect awards of a 50:50 division of time between parents. In this category around 18 &#8211; 19% of parents get equal time with their children.</p>
<p>The subsequent categories from right to left are 3). 30% &#8211; 45%, 4). 10% &#8211; 29%, 5). 1% &#8211; 0%, 6). No contact at all, 7). no order set, 8). “complex”, 9). Not available.</p>
<p><em>(See <a href="#f1appendix">Appendix A below</a> for more analysis).</em></p>
<p>It would be fair to assess the first 2 years as failing to live up to the fears of mothers and women&#8217;s groups that fathers would runaway with the majority of custody awards and the majority of shared custody. If anything the transformation to equality is close to imperceptible.</p>
<p>Overall, the Family Court has made orders that the children spend more than 50% of time with their mother in 60% of litigated cases – but ‘60% of litigated cases’ does not mean 60% of all cases.</p>
<p>By way of balancing this figure, where parents can reach an early agreement it was agreed that the child spend more than 50% of time with their mother in 68% of cases.</p>
<p>It is probably too early to suggest that Pareto’s Law is applying in custody awards.</p>
<p>The Family Court made 50/50 care orders between parents in only 15% of litigated cases. However this figure rose to 19% of cases where parents had came to an early agreement to share care.</p>
<p>If any progress is to be made in other countries &#8211; pre-supposing that a full 50:50 share in child care is an unlikely option &#8211; then the next category is perhaps the most vital, i.e. cases where the father receives between 30% and 45% of time.</p>
<p>In this category of cases where the father received between 30% and 45% of the time, the Family Court made orders to that effect in 14% of the litigated cases.</p>
<p>In this same category the Family Court made orders that the children spend between 30% to 45% of time with the mother in only 3% of litigated cases.</p>
<p>In a third of litigated cases, the Family Court ordered that children spend 30% or less time with their father (Fig 2). Of the 100% of this category, the main reasons for the order included ‘abuse and family violence’ in 29% of cases (Fig 2).</p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<div id="attachment_12" class="wp-caption alignnone" style="width: 590px"><a href="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/20090302familycourtofaustralia_sharedparentingstatistics2.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-12" title="20090302FamilyCourtOfAustralia_SharedParentingStatistics2" src="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/20090302familycourtofaustralia_sharedparentingstatistics2.jpg?w=640" alt="Fathers - when less then 30% of the time"   /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Fig. 2. Fathers - when less then 30% of the time – Reasons for the Family Court to order that children spend 30% or less time with their father in a third of the litigated cases</p></div>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">
<p align="center"><strong>Reason</strong></p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">
<p align="center"><strong>Percentage of cases</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Abuse and family violence</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">29%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Entrenched conflict</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">15%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Distance/transport/financial barriers</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">6%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Substance abuse</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Relocation</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">4%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Mental health</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">3%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Childs&#8217; views</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">2%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Other (*)</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">35%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" valign="top" width="568"><em>* ‘Other’ includes where the reason is unknown such as; the parties consenting during the litigation process, the reason is not covered by a category, or there is multiple and complex reasons.</em></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" valign="top" width="568"><em>Source: Family Court of Australia, Shared parental responsibility &#8211; Statistics in cases conducted in the Family Court of Australia during 2007–08, 2 March 2009</em></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>If 29% of these 30% of cases involved allegations of abuse and family violence, this equates to approx. 9% of the total decided by courts (i.e. 29% of 30%). Where ’entrenched conflict’ is given as the reason this equates to 5% (i.e. 15% of 30%).</p>
<p>In 9% of litigated cases (Fig 3), the Family Court ordered that children spend 30% or less time with their mother. The main reasons for the order include mental health issues (31%) and abuse/violence. The later, at 16%, is higher than one would expect and for some reason no ’entrenched conflict’ is listed for mothers. This pushes the reader towards interpreting all conflict as male inspired.</p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<div id="attachment_14" class="wp-caption alignnone" style="width: 590px"><a href="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/20090302familycourtofaustralia_sharedparentingstatistics3.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-14" title="20090302FamilyCourtOfAustralia_SharedParentingStatistics3" src="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/20090302familycourtofaustralia_sharedparentingstatistics3.jpg?w=640" alt="Mother - when less then 30% of the time"   /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Fig 3. Mothers - when less then 30% of the time - Reasons for the Family Court to order that children spend 30% or less time with their mother in 9% of the litigated cases</p></div>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">
<p align="center"><strong>Reason</strong></p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">
<p align="center"><strong>Percentage of cases</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Mental health issues</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">31%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Distance/ transport/financial barriers</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">16%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Abuse and/or family violence</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">16%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Substance abuse</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">7%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Relocation</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">7%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Entrenched conflict</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">2%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Childs&#8217; views</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">2%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Other (*)</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">20%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" valign="top" width="568"><em>* ‘Other’ includes where the reason is unknown such as; the parties consenting during the litigation process, the reason is not covered by a category, or there is multiple and complex reasons.</em></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" valign="top" width="568"><em>Source: Family Court of Australia, Shared parental responsibility &#8211; Statistics in cases conducted in the Family Court of Australia during 2007–08, 2 March 2009</em></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>In some states of the USA where shared parenting legislation has been adopted it has been suggested that a declined in the numbers divorcing has followed. This is not conclusively proven but tentative. Observations of a situation can also be deeply influenced by a fall in economic activity; a fall in marriage numbers, or is simply a coincidence.</p>
<p>Therefore, the graph below (Fig 4) should be treated with caution. The apparent fall in divorce since 2001 (itself unusually high) has been followed by further falls but the overall ‘averaged’ level, taken from 1996 to 2005, did not significantly fall until 2007.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<div id="attachment_16" class="wp-caption alignnone" style="width: 590px"><em><em><a href="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/0-38a0fig4_-divorces_granted_australia_1988-2007.gif"><img class="size-full wp-image-16" title="0.38A0!Fig4_ Divorces_granted_Australia_1988-2007" src="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/0-38a0fig4_-divorces_granted_australia_1988-2007.gif?w=640" alt="Fig 4. Divorces granted: Australia - 1988-2007"   /></a></em></em><p class="wp-caption-text">Fig. 4. Divorces granted: Australia - 1988-2007 (Source: ABS, 3307.0.55.001 - Divorces, Australia, 2007)</p></div>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>A further word of caution in relation to Fig 4 is needed, namely that the ‘Y axis’ does not begin at zero divorces but starts at 39,000 divorces and rises to over 54,000, thus exaggerating the annual variations and could give a false first impression.</p>
<p>The number of divorces fell to 51,375 in 2006 and fell further in 2007 to 47,963. Whether this is a sustainable downward trend or a ‘statistical blip’ only time will tell.</p>
<p>It should also be added that the number of divorces granted in 2007 was 9.8% lower than five years earlier but only 6.6% lower than 10 years ago due to a peak in the number of divorces granted in 2001.The decade trend from 1998 to 2007 is shown in tabular form at Fig 5. At 47 963 there were still more divorces than there were in 1988.</p>
<p><em>Fig 5. Number of divorces granted &#8211; selected years 1988 – 2007 (Australia).</em></p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="160"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="60">1988</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">1998</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">2003</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">2004</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">2005</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">2006</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">2007</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="160">No. of divorces granted</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">41 007</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">51 370</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">53 145</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">52 747</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">52 399</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">51 375</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">47 963</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="8" valign="top" width="578"><em>Source: Taken from “Selected divorce indicators &#8211; Australia: Selected years &#8211; 1988-2007”, ABS, 3307.0.55.001 &#8211; Divorces, Australia, 2007</em></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><em></em><br />
In recent years the proportion of children caught up in their parents divorce has dropped from 57% to 49% (see Fig 6). The numbers too have fallen. This, however, could be a function of postponing childbearing until later in married life.</p>
<p><em>Fig 6.</em> <em>Proportion of children caught up in their parents divorce &#8211; selected years 1988 &#8211; 2007 (Australia).</em></p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="125"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="65">1988</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">1998</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">2003</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">2004</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">2005</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">2006</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">2007</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="125">Proportion of all divorces (%)</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">57.5</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">53.4</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">50.1</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">49.8</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">49.8</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">50.1</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">49.3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="125">Actual numbers of children</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">&#8211;</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">&#8211;</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">49 850</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">&#8211;</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">&#8211;</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">48,396</td>
<td valign="top" width="65">44,371</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="8" valign="top" width="578"><em>Source: Taken from “Selected divorce indicators &#8211; Australia: Selected years &#8211; 1988-2007, %, (children)”, ABS 3307.0.55.001 &#8211; Divorces, Australia, 2007</em></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<p>Looking back over the last twenty years the proportion of divorces involving children aged under 18 years has decreasing but that decline has slowed in recent years (compare Fig 6 with Fig 7).</p>
<p><em>NB. In Britain we tend to include children aged under 16 and define them as ‘dependent’. In other countries the age for used is 18 (e.g. Australia, New Zealand).</em></p>
<p>In terms of actual numbers of children affected by parental divorce only figures for 2006 and 2007 were readily accessible (Fig 6 and Fig 7). From other ABS sources it would appear that in 2001, 28,345 children had parents who divorced and in 2002 the figure was 26,820 children.<a href="#f2"> [2]</a></p>
<p><em>Fig 7.</em> <em>Numbers of children affected by parental divorce 1984 &#8211; 1994</em></p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="79">Australia / Year</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">1984</td>
<td valign="top" width="44">&#8217;85</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">&#8217;86</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">&#8217;87</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">&#8217;88</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">&#8217;89</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">&#8217;90</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">&#8217;91</td>
<td valign="top" width="58">&#8217;92</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">&#8217;93</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">&#8217;94</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="79">Divorces involving children of all divorces (%)</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">60.9</td>
<td valign="top" width="44">60.6</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">59.7</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">58.6</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">57.5</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">55.3</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">55.6</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">54.2</td>
<td valign="top" width="58">52.9</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">52.6</td>
<td valign="top" width="46">nya</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="79">Actual numbers of children</td>
<td valign="top" width="60">50,713</td>
<td valign="top" width="44"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="46"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="46"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="46"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="46"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="46"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="46"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="58">24,215</td>
<td valign="top" width="46"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="46"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="12" valign="top" width="607"><em>Source: ABS, 3307.0.55.001 &#8211; Divorces, Australia, 2002</em></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><em></em><br />
For the first time in 20 years the proportion of divorces involving children fell below 50% in 2007 (49.3%). If this is related to Australia’s introduction of shared parenting it will be intriguing to see what future years will bring.</p>
<p>The Australian Bureau of Statistics then displays this trend as a graph (see Fig 8), however it should be noted that the Y axis begins at 48% and not zero%. This means that the visually dramatic fall seen in Fig 8 is really only a 10% fall, from around 60% to close to 50%.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<div id="attachment_26" class="wp-caption alignnone" style="width: 590px"><em><a href="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/3-26cefig8_proportion_of_divorces_involving_children_australia_1986-e28093-2006.gif"><img class="size-full wp-image-26" title="3.26CE!Fig8_Proportion_of_divorces_involving_children_Australia_1986 – 2006" src="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/3-26cefig8_proportion_of_divorces_involving_children_australia_1986-e28093-2006.gif?w=640" alt="Fig 8. Proportion of divorces involving children, Australia 1986 – 2006. &lt;br&gt;(Source: ABS, 3307.0.55.001 - Divorces, Australia, 2006) "   /></a></em><p class="wp-caption-text">Fig 8. Proportion of divorces involving children, Australia 1986 – 2006. (Source: ABS, 3307.0.55.001 - Divorces, Australia, 2006)</p></div>
<p>The duration of marriages, from inception to separation, has risen slightly since 1988 (Fig 9). The duration has risen from 10 years in 1988 to 12½ years in 2006.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<div id="attachment_27" class="wp-caption alignnone" style="width: 590px"><a href="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/0-ab20fig9_median_length_to_separation_and_divorce_australia_1988-2007.gif"><img class="size-full wp-image-27" title="0.AB20!Fig9_Median_length_to_separation_and_divorce_Australia_1988-2007" src="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/0-ab20fig9_median_length_to_separation_and_divorce_australia_1988-2007.gif?w=640" alt="Fig 9. Median length to separation and divorce: Australia – 1988 - 2007. &lt;br&gt;(Source: ABS, 3307.0.55.001 - Divorces, Australia, 2007)"   /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Fig 9. Median length to separation and divorce: Australia – 1988 - 2007. (Source: ABS, 3307.0.55.001 - Divorces, Australia, 2007)</p></div>
<p>At the same time the age at which divorces were sought also increased from 33 for females in 1988 (the key driver) to 40 in 2006 (Fig 10).</p>
<p>If the American predictions about the effects of shared parenting are true then this trend should be reinforced over the coming years.</p>
<p>Once again the Australian Bureau of Statistics have displayed the trend in the graph (Fig 10) not with a zero% Y axis but one that begins at 34,000. However, whereas earlier trend lines had fluctuations giving undue importance to a trend change, Fig 10 has consistently upwards trend lines and so more accurately reflects the changes in society.</p>
<div id="attachment_28" class="wp-caption alignnone" style="width: 590px"><a href="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/0-630cfig10_median_age_at_divorce_australia_1988-2007.gif"><img class="size-full wp-image-28" title="0.630C!Fig10_Median_age_at_divorce_Australia_1988-2007" src="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/0-630cfig10_median_age_at_divorce_australia_1988-2007.gif?w=640" alt="Fig 10. Median age at divorce: Australia - 1988-2007. &lt;br&gt;(Source: ABS, 3307.0.55.001 - Divorces, Australia, 2007)"   /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Fig 10. Median age at divorce: Australia - 1988-2007. (Source: ABS, 3307.0.55.001 - Divorces, Australia, 2007)</p></div>
<p>It has been suggested that women would petition less for divorce if they knew (or feared) they would not automatically be awarded custody of the children. Conversely, this might encourage husbands/fathers to petition in greater numbers. However, this does not yet appear to be the case.</p>
<p>This is underscored by Fig 11, which gives an analysis of those petitioning for divorce. The upper line (starting at 50%) represents women applying for divorce and displays a ‘surge’ between 1996 and 2001. The middle line beginning at 38% shows male applications. Both male and female applicant trends are generally downwards, while, ‘joint applications’ emerge from relative obscurity in 1988 to a dominant position by 2006. Why this should have occurred is not clear unless it is related to some peripheral driver, e.g. legal aid entitlement.</p>
<div id="attachment_29" class="wp-caption alignnone" style="width: 590px"><a href="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/1-a50fig11_type_of_applicant_australia_1988-2007.gif"><img class="size-full wp-image-29" title="1.A50!Fig11_Type_of_applicant_Australia_1988-2007" src="http://equalparenting.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/1-a50fig11_type_of_applicant_australia_1988-2007.gif?w=640" alt="Fig 11. Type of applicant: Australia - 1988-2007. &lt;br&gt;(Source: ABS, 3307.0.55.001 - Divorces, Australia, 2007)"   /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Fig 11. Type of applicant: Australia - 1988-2007. (Source: ABS, 3307.0.55.001 - Divorces, Australia, 2007)</p></div>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<h2 style="text-align:center;"><strong>Postscript</strong></h2>
<p><em></em><br />
Vociferous and sometimes vitriolic opposition to equality in parenting has already surfaced in Australia. It comes not from fathers but from women’s organisations which must somehow feel themselves under threat and a few academics, e.g. Jennifer McIntosh. This threat must relate to the prospect of not seeing their children quite so often and/or with not so much of the monopoly over their children that they once previously enjoyed.</p>
<p>Could this horror be rooted in their own fear ? The nightmare that some fathers/men might do to them what for years they have been wantonly doing to fathers ?</p>
<p>For academics the threat is to their reputations. Adele Horin writing in Australia’s ‘The Sydney Morning Herald’ quotes Jennifer McIntosh, a highly respected child psychologist as casting doubt on the efficacy of post divorce shared care / shared parenting.<a href="#f3"> [3]</a> Having invested so many years writing papers and authoring books to now be shown (and over the coming years proven) to have got it completely wrong is worth any manipulation of the facts – certainly until retirement.<a href="#f4"> [4]</a></p>
<p>The current maliciousness towards equal parenting tends to come from those very people that have for so long demanded that Society treat them as equals.</p>
<p>Those that describe themselves as professional and business women are allegedly opposed to equal parenting – if there are any professional and business women in favour of equal parenting they have so far failed to step forward or counter their sisters. Yet is it not the case that shared equal parenting would mimic traditional couples inasmuch that it would give the former wife and mother, more ‘down time’, more quality time for her own personal needs, more time to focus on her career and profession and generally lower her stress levels (see mental health levels Fig 3 above) ?</p>
<p>The other argument ‘thread’ found on Australian websites and in the occasional feature article is one connected to the perceived risk of violence.</p>
<p>Since we have shown above that this applies to only about 5% of families one might be tempted to dismiss it as a comparative irrelevance. However, since it will be ‘majored’ on by opponents to equal parenting (predominantly by that splinter group in society involved with domestic violence against women, but not against men), its deserves a brief demolition. <a href="#f5">[5]</a></p>
<p>The policy of this group, perhaps best described as a ‘clique’, is to stress how Australia is a family-friendly nation, and that as such Australia should remain committed to children (note how Nationalism suddenly appears from this quarter).</p>
<p>The needs of children should be the paramount consideration when deciding custody (note, needs are not specified). But who decides custody in both the present and former regimes ? Adults, of course ! Children &#8211; when they are asked &#8211; uniformly say they want access to and enjoy both parents.</p>
<p>This clique believes the changes to equality in parenting were premised on ensuring the rights and welfare of parents (and why not, there are two parents and both have rights ?), yet they are unable to see this criticism, circular though it is, could be equally levelled at the previous regime.</p>
<p>Their argument then turns to the new system being awful because it adopts a “one size fits all” principle. From the statistics given above this clearly is not the case and is demonstrable nonsense.</p>
<p>If anything can be labelled a “one size fits all” solution it is the former regime where men were totally excluded from meaningful participation in the future lives of their own children and women almost guaranteed 100% custody.</p>
<p>Had women not so recklessly, routinely and gratuitously abused their position of trust and misused their ‘gatekeeping’ powers, a reform might not have been so urgently necessary.</p>
<p>Examination of the clique’s claim that the new law takes no account of the circumstances of individual families and individual children is rendered absurd by the above statistics depicting the division of custody and the reasons given.</p>
<p>Then, by focusing on the dysfunctional and troubled families (which do exist), their logic is that the new regime cannot be rolled out to those families which are not dysfunctional and not troubled, i.e. normal, as this will somehow be unfair and disadvantage dysfunctional families.</p>
<p>Evidently the proverbial penny has not dropped &#8211; one cannot have a “one size fits all” criticism if at the same time also complaining about the new law taking into account disadvantaged and ‘troubled families’.</p>
<p>By freeing up resources these troubled families are able to secure the attention and dedication that under the previous regime would have been rationed or curtailed. By implication this means that the hope among even the most dysfunctional and troubled families of a path to normality will be improved.</p>
<p>Critics of the new shared parenting laws prefer not to publicise how broken and defective were the previous set of laws. Papers from 10th Australian National Family Law Conference held in Melbourne (16-20 March 2002) spell out unequivocally how out of touch the model had become by 2002.<a href="#f6"> [6]</a> One speaker was of the opinion that:</p>
<blockquote><p>“The concept of parental responsibility is past its use-by date. It should be consigned to the dustbin of legal history, like the Roman law concept of paterfamilias.</p>
<p>Society needs a new standard: that of family responsibility [as opposed to ‘parental responsibility’]. By this I mean that family members should be responsible for each other and that the extent of the ‘bundle’ of rights accorded to each family member should depend on the degree of responsibility exercised in practice by each member, whether such responsibility is accepted voluntarily and lovingly or imposed by the law.</p>
<p>The idea of family should be broadly defined to encompass disparate cultural and social models so that the general principle of family responsibility can be adapted pragmatically to specific circumstances.</p>
<p>Thus I endorse the German law that children are legally obliged to financially support their aging parents, with the concomitant rule (followed in Spain) that a young person should not be entitled to welfare benefits if the family can afford to provide support.<br />
My basic premise also leads me to criticise laws, such as in France, Sweden and Germany, which prohibit a father from totally disinheriting an unrepentant prodigal son. Responsibilities conferring rights, yes, but no rights without responsibilities.</p></blockquote>
<p>The criticism before Australia changed her custody law &#8211; and it’s a chorus in every English speaking nation – is that it would lead to the neglect of children&#8217;s rights and an increase in domestic violence. This claim is now being re-laundered in the post-legislative phase. This is a useful indicator to other countries of what they might expect should they adopt Australia’s solution.</p>
<p>That esoteric legion which earns it salary through domestic violence advocacy fails to mention that their concerns about rising levels of conflict between parents is unlikely to occur given that there is now less at stake or to argue about. They complain of “a very oppressive culture that desperately needs to be reviewed”, yet fail to see that only the previous regime was oppressive and created a culture of animosity and ‘winner takes all’.</p>
<p>Surely the ideal of such domestic violence interest groups is to eradicate “the problem” and so work themselves out of a job.</p>
<p>Or is it ?</p>
<p>Faced with unemployment would not the kind of review they seek put them back into fulltime employment ?</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><strong>END</strong></p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<p><a name="f1appendix"></a></p>
<h2 style="text-align:center;"><a name="f1appendix"></a><strong>Appendix A</strong></h2>
<p><em></em><br />
<strong>CASES WHERE MOTHERS RECEIVED A MAJORITY OF TIME</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>In 60% of litigated cases, the Family Court made orders that the children spend more than 50% of time with their mother.</li>
<li>Where parents came to an early agreement, it was agreed in 68% of cases that the child spend more than 50% of time with their mother.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>CASES WHERE FATHERS RECEIVED A MAJORITY OF TIME</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>In 17% of litigated cases, the Family Court made orders that the children spend more than 50% of time with their father.</li>
<li>Where parents came to an early agreement, it was agreed in 8% of cases that children spend more than 50% of time with their father.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>CASES WHERE 50/50 TIME WAS AWARDED</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>In 15% of litigated cases, the Family Court made orders for 50/50 care between parents.</li>
<li>Where parents came to an early agreement, the parents agreed on a 50/50 care arrangement in 19% of cases.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>CASES WHERE THE FATHER RECEIVED BETWEEN 30% AND 45% OF TIME</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>In 14% of litigated cases, the Family Court made orders that the children spend between 30% to 45% of time with their father.</li>
<li>Where parents came to an early agreement, it was agreed in 11% of cases that the children spend between 30% to 45% of time with their father.</li>
<li>In 3% of litigated cases, the Family Court made orders that the children spend between 30% to 45% of time with the mother.</li>
<li>Where parents came to an early agreement, it was agreed in 1% of cases that the children spend between 30% to 45% of time with their mother.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>CASES WHERE THE FATHER SPENT NO TIME WITH THE CHILDREN</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>In 6% of litigated cases, the father was ordered to spend no time with the children.</li>
<li>Where the parents came to an early agreement, it was agreed in less than 1% of cases that the father have no contact with the children.</li>
</ul>
<p>The main reasons for the order include:</p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">
<p align="center"><strong>Reason</strong></p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">
<p align="center"><strong>Percentage of cases</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Abuse and family violence</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">38%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Entrenched conflict</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">10%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Distance/transport/financial barriers</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Relocation</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">2%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Mental health issues</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">2%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Other</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">42%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" valign="top" width="568"><em>* Not all categories are shown in this table therefore it does not add to 100%. ‘Other’ includes where the reason is unknown such as; the parties consenting during the litigation process, the reason is not covered by a category, or there is multiple and complex reasons.</em></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" valign="top" width="568"><em>Source: Family Court of Australia, Shared parental responsibility &#8211; Statistics in cases conducted in the Family Court of Australia during 2007–08, 2 March 2009</em></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><em></em><br />
<strong>CASES WHERE THE MOTHER SPENT NO TIME WITH THE CHILDREN</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>In 1% of litigated cases, the mother was ordered to have no contact with the children.</li>
</ul>
<p>The main reasons for the order include:</p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">
<p align="center"><strong>Reason</strong></p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">
<p align="center"><strong>Percentage of cases</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Abuse and family violence</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">15%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Entrenched conflict</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Distance/transport/financial barriers</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">8%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Relocation</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">8%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Mental health issues</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">31%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="284">Other</td>
<td valign="top" width="284">31%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" valign="top" width="568"><em>* Not all categories are shown in this table therefore it does not add to 100%. ‘Other’ includes where the reason is unknown such as; the parties consenting during the litigation process, the reason is not covered by a category, or there is multiple and complex reasons.</em></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" valign="top" width="568"><em>Source: Family Court of Australia, Shared parental responsibility &#8211; Statistics in cases conducted in the Family Court of Australia during 2007–08, 2 March 2009</em></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><em></em><br />
<strong>GRANDPARENTS</strong><strong><em> </em></strong></p>
<ul>
<li>In 8% of litigated cases the Family Court ordered that the child spend time with grandparents.</li>
<li>In 2% of cases where there was an early agreement it was agreed that the child spend time with the grandparent.</li>
<li>In 2% of litigated cases the Family Court ordered that the child spend time with an ‘other’ person.</li>
<li>In 1% of cases where there was an early agreement it was agreed that the child spend time with an ‘other’ person.</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:center;"><strong>END</strong></p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<h2><strong>References</strong></h2>
<ol>
<li>Australian Bureau of Statistics, ABS, 3307.0.55.001 &#8211; <em>Divorces, Australia, 2002</em> <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/FBC6FEDBB2B43180CA256FAF0071CE3F?opendocument">http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/FBC6FEDBB2B43180CA256FAF0071CE3F?opendocument</a></li>
<li>Australian Bureau of Statistics, ABS, 3307.0.55.001 &#8211; <em>Divorces, Australia, 2006</em> <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyReleaseDate/93C5FC5AF5651286CA2574B30017C7F7?OpenDocument">http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyReleaseDate/93C5FC5AF5651286CA2574B30017C7F7?OpenDocument</a></li>
<li>Australian Bureau of Statistics, ABS, 3307.0.55.001 &#8211; <em>Divorces, Australia, 2007</em>; <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/7d12b0f6763c78caca257061001cc588/f356dbb7ea7a96eeca256f10007b6b1a%21OpenDocument">http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/7d12b0f6763c78caca257061001cc588/f356dbb7ea7a96eeca256f10007b6b1a!OpenDocument</a>; <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3307.0.55.001">http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3307.0.55.001</a></li>
<li>Baroness Deech of Cumnor DBE; Human Rights and Welfare – Do children need a father?, Gresham College &#8211; Lectures and Events, 11/05/2009 <a href="http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=45&amp;EventId=865">http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=45&amp;EventId=865</a><strong> </strong></li>
<li>Family Court of Australia, <em>Shared parental responsibility &#8211; Statistics in cases conducted in the Family Court of Australia during 2007–08</em>, 2 March 2009 <a href="http://www.familycourt.gov.au/wps/wcm/resources/file/eb6b6e03325f52f/SPR_org_02_03_09.pdf">http://www.familycourt.gov.au/wps/wcm/resources/file/eb6b6e03325f52f/SPR_org_02_03_09.pdf</a><strong> </strong><a href="http://www.familycourt.gov.au/wps/wcm/resources/file/eb6b6f033263e7d/SPR_org_02_03_09.doc">http://www.familycourt.gov.au/wps/wcm/resources/file/eb6b6f033263e7d/SPR_org_02_03_09.doc</a></li>
<li>Robert Whiston and Nigel Hawkes; <em>Violence and the invisible sex</em><strong>; </strong>In: Straight Statistics &#8211; Tue, 15/09/2009 &#8211; 09:10<strong> </strong><a href="http://www.straightstatistics.org/article/violence-and-invisible-sex">http://www.straightstatistics.org/article/violence-and-invisible-sex</a></li>
</ol>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<h2>Footnotes</h2>
<p><a name="f1"></a><strong>[1]</strong> “A Critical Perspective on the Welfare Principle” by Stephen Gilmore (2001). From: The Law and Social Work; Part I. See also “No yardstick for child’s best interest &#8211; It would make more sense to probe least detrimental options”, Leonard Carr, The Times, South Africa Aug 19, 2009 <a href="http://www.timeslive.co.za/opinion/columnists/article17710.ece">http://www.timeslive.co.za/opinion/columnists/article17710.ece</a></p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<p><a name="f2"></a><strong>[2] </strong>Australian Bureau of Statistics, ABS, 3307.0.55.001 &#8211; Divorces, Australia, 2002 <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/FBC6FEDBB2B43180CA256FAF0071CE3F?opendocument">http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/FBC6FEDBB2B43180CA256FAF0071CE3F?opendocument</a></p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<p><a name="f3"></a><strong>[3]</strong> “Children at risk in rise of shared care”, 4 March 2008. Sample was small &#8211; 77 court cases involving 111 children.<br />
<a href="http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/children-at-risk-in-rise-of-shared-care/2008/03/03/1204402365352.html" target="_blank">http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/children-at-risk-in-rise-of-shared-care/2008/03/03/1204402365352.html</a></p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<p><a name="f4"></a><strong>[4]</strong> Compare Ruth Deech lecture <a href="http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=45&amp;EventId=865">http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=45&amp;EventId=865</a> Ref. Gresham College Lecture, 2009, and ‘Divorce Dissent’ with her work devising easier divorce laws. See also (judge) Brenda Hogget exponent of anti-marriage, <em>&#8216;Ends &amp; Means: The Utility of Marriage&#8217;</em> 1980, who then marries her cohabitee of many years Prof. Julian Farrand.</p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<p><a name="f5"></a><strong>[5]</strong> ‘Violence and the invisible sex’, <a href="http://www.straightstatistics.org/article/violence-and-invisible-sex">http://www.straightstatistics.org/article/violence-and-invisible-sex</a></p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
<p><a name="f6"></a><strong>[6]</strong> International Family Law Chambers <a href="http://www.internationalfamilylaw.com/pub/10melb.html" target="_blank">http://www.internationalfamilylaw.com/pub/10melb.html</a></p>
<p><a href="#top1"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><span style="color:#75a2c6;">Top</span></span></strong></a></p>
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		<title>Benefits of Post-Divorce Shared Parenting (Tromp, 2009)</title>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 03 Jan 2009 12:15:50 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Father Knowledge Centre</dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[Benefits of post-divorce shared parenting and the situation in the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany Presentation by Peter Tromp MSc, child and educational psychologist [1], President of the Father Knowledge Centre Europe (FKCE) and Chair of the Dutch Foundation for Children, Access and Equal Parenting (Stichting Kind en Omgangsrecht) at the International Conference on Family and&#160;&#8230; <a href="http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/2009/01/03/2/">Read&#160;more</a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=sharedparenting.wordpress.com&amp;blog=1566479&amp;post=26&amp;subd=sharedparenting&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong><span style="font-size:13pt;">Benefits of post-divorce shared parenting and the situation in the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany</span></strong></p>
<p><em><span style="font-size:11pt;">Presentation by Peter Tromp MSc, child and educational psychologist</span> </em><a name="_ftnref1" href="#_ftn1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[1]</span></span></a><em>, President of the Father Knowledge Centre Europe (FKCE) and Chair of the Dutch Foundation for Children, Access and Equal Parenting (Stichting Kind en Omgangsrecht) at the International Conference on Family and Equality “Justice and Father’s &amp; Men’s Dignity” on 2-4 January 2009 in Drama, Greece</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><span style="font-size:11pt;"><a title="Presentation at Greek Conference by Peter Tromp MSc, Netherlands" href="http://fatherknowledgecentre.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/20090103_presentation_by_peter_tromp_in_greece_benefits_of_post-divorce_shared_parenting_and_the_netherlands_belgium_and_germany1.pdf" target="_self">Download the PDF version</a></span></em></li>
</ul>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;">Abstract</span></strong></p>
<p><em>All across Europe the child custody debate has moved to the top of the political agenda.The battle lines are essentially the stark choice between mother-only-custody of the child versus shared parenting where both parents are participants in child custody and care. Much is at stake &#8211; not just for feminists, who support the former, and fathers, who support the latter, but for children and whether the balanced, healthy society we all seek will become a reality. This is a clash that must be won. It cannot, as American author Warren Farrell famously said, be an undeclared war won at a battlefield where only one side turned up. The question today is whether children in the post divorce scenario grow up to be a liability and burden on the state, or a jewel in society&#8217;s crown ? After 30 years of feigning deafness, politicians across Europe are acknowledging the contributions and efforts fathers should be allowed to make to young children if they are ever to be properly &#8216;socialised&#8217;.&#8221; This cannot be done under the present regime of mother-only-custody found in most European countries.</em></p>
<p><em>This paper will address the psychological and emotional needs of children but it will also mention the concrete changes underway. Fathers for too long excluded from the social policy level and denied any input in shaping policy are today making small inroads. For instance, there are developments in shared parenting to be found in Holland, Belgian and to a degree in German family law which I will also cover in this paper. Slowly, &#8216;outcomes&#8217; for so long championed by fathers&#8217; groups, are being adopted as the criterion rather than ideologically driven dogma. It was just 10 years ago that the consensus was that it was unnecessary for a father to have any role after birth and were increasingly seen as superfluous to children&#8217;s needs. Slowly, as society has unravelled, it has been recognised that children in fatherless families run greater mortality and morbidity risks. That their &#8216;quality of life&#8217; is poor, their &#8216;live chances&#8217; negligible. Without fathers present they become victims of physical abuse, emotional and sexual abuse, have poor health, poor education, become drink and drug dependent, homeless and jailed.</em></p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;">1. Introduction</span></strong></p>
<p>Good morning Mr. Chairman. First of all I would like to thank the Greek Men’s and Father’s Dignity Association SYGAPA, the Prefecture of Drama and the Technological Educational Institute of Kavala in Greece for taking the initiative for arranging for an international conference on the equality and dignity of men and fathers in the family and in family law and offering me the opportunity to make the opening presentation at the start of your conference.</p>
<p>The excellent initiative of SYGAPA to organise this international conference in Drama, Greece in 2009 stands in a longer tradition that first started with a series of yearly European father summer conferences organised during the eighties and nineties of the last century by Professor Eduard Bakalar in Prague, Czechia.</p>
<p>His initiative was followed by the International Father Conference in 1996 at Woudschoten and the International Father Conference “In the best interest of the child – reality or magic formula?” in 1999 at Breda. Both conferences were organised by myself in the Netherlands in cooperation with the Dutch ministry of Justice on behalf of the Dutch Association Parents for Children.</p>
<p>Also in 1999 an international summer camp conference on equal parenting was held from 25-31 July at Langeac in France.</p>
<p>In 2000 and 2001 this was followed by two International Father Conferences organised by Mankind in London on the issues of “The age of violent young males – causes and remedies” and “Censorship”.</p>
<p>On 18/19 October 2002 the first international conference on the Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS) was held in Frankfurt/Main in Germany under the chairmanship of the Wuerzburg psychiatrist Wilfrid von Boch-Galhau.</p>
<p>In 2004 this was followed by the European Father Conference organised by the Austrian government during its EU-presidency term in Vienna.</p>
<p>Finally in July 2007 this was followed by the International Conference “Boys and the boy crisis” in Washington DC.</p>
<p>It is a tradition that certainly deserves further continuity into the near future.</p>
<p>But let me introduce myself. My name is Peter Tromp. I am a child- and educational psychologist from the Netherlands and &#8211; as its president and international coordinator &#8211; I represent the Father Knowledge Centre Europe.</p>
<p>The Father Knowledge Centre Europe (FKCE) was originally set up by Dutch voluntary-sector NGO the Foundation for Children, Access and Equal Parenting, which itself was founded in 1989. Father Knowledge Centre champions the cause of equal parenting and keeping both parents actively involved in children’s lives after divorce and separation.</p>
<p>It works with policy makers, scientists, campaign groups, lobbyists and reformers and aims to make knowledge and information available about the role, the contributions and the efforts men and fathers are making in children’s lives, particularly in raising and educating (their) children. Whether that is in the family &#8211; both before and after divorce &#8211; or in any of the other living environments where children grow up, like childcare and education.</p>
<p>The aim is to have these contributions and efforts of fathers and men in caring for and educating children better acknowledged and supported on the social policy level.</p>
<p>The mode of operation of the Father Knowledge Centre Europe to these effects is on both the Pan-European as well as on the national levels in Europe. To this end a Pan-European communication forum between the countries that constitute the European Union (EU) &#8211; the Familyrights-4-Europe Forum &#8211; was established in January 2003, while at the same time the Father Knowledge Centre Europe established separate national branches in the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and Belgium, with a separate branch in Germany now being underway.</p>
<p>In my presentation of today I would like to speak to you about some of the benefits of post-divorce ‘shared parenting’ arrangements <span style="text-decoration:underline;">for children</span> <a name="_ftnref2" href="#_ftn2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[2]</span></span></a>. And as a prelude to the programmed presentation at this conference on the history of shared parenting in the United Kingdom <a name="_ftnref3" href="#_ftn3"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[3]</span></span></a> by my honourable friend Robert Whiston FRSA, the president of the Father Knowledge Centre United Kingdom, At the end of my presentation I would like to conclude with summary introductions to the situation of &#8211; and developments in – shared parenting in the European Union, with emphasis on recent developments in the Dutch, Belgian and German divorce and family law systems.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;">2. Some definition issues in post-divorce shared and equal parenting</span></strong></p>
<p>Before elaborating on the benefits of post-divorce ‘shared parenting’ for children I would first have to spend some words on some of the different issues surrounding a definition of shared and equal parenting.</p>
<p>Joint legal custody, joint physical custody, shared parenting, equal parenting, shared residence, shared care, bi-location, co-parenting are all terms and concepts that are being used in the context of shared and equal parenting. They all have different meanings and different legal connotations.</p>
<p>When I am talking, however, of the benefits of shared and equal parenting I am referring to any post-divorce form of parenting in which both parents share in the day-to-day care and residence for the children in a mutually agreed post-divorce parenting plan or arrangement between the parents. This excludes forms of shared parenting that are only limited to joint legal custody without sharing in the day-to-day physical care for the children, as I consider these custody forms to be ‘shared parenting’ only in name and not in practice.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;">3. The benefits of post-divorce shared parenting</span></strong></p>
<p>If we look at what available scientific research tells us what the best interests of children are with regard to parenting arrangements after divorce or separation, then the picture cannot be clearer. Comparing the outcomes for children growing up in shared parenting arrangements, having regular contact with and care from both parents after divorce or separation, with the outcomes for children growing up in single parent families in the sole care of only one of their parents, generally the mother, than children growing up in shared parenting do much better.</p>
<p><span style="font-size:11pt;"><strong>Better outcomes for children in shared parenting arrangements</strong></span></p>
<p>From a meta-analysis on 33 underlying separation researches Robert Bauserman (American Psychological Association, 2002) concluded, that children growing up in a form of shared parenting with frequent contact with and care from both parents, had</p>
<ul>
<li>less behavioural &#8211; and emotional problems,</li>
<li>exhibited higher levels of self-worth and self-confidence,</li>
<li>were better capable of building and preserving social contacts and relations, both within and outside the family and</li>
<li>performed better at school,</li>
</ul>
<p>than children who had grown up in the sole care of only one of their parents.</p>
<p>Children growing up in shared parenting of both parents after divorce and separation did so much better than children growing up under sole care of only one of their parents, that shared parenting arrangements after separation by far proved to be the &#8220;second best&#8221; parenting arrangement for growing up children, providing them with a new post-divorce family situation that best approached the ideal situation of an intact family.</p>
<p>From a range of other researches it further became clear, that children growing up in shared parenting of both parents</p>
<ul>
<li>develop better,</li>
<li>are more satisfied,</li>
<li>prove to be better adapted and adjusted and</li>
<li>have more self-confidence and self-worth</li>
</ul>
<p>in comparison with children growing up in sole care of one of their parents (Nunan, 1980; Cowan, 1982; Pojman, 1982; Livingston, 1983; Noonan, 1984; Shiller, 1984.,1986; Handley, 1985; Wolchik, 1985; Bredefeld, 1985; Öberg &amp; Öberg, 1987).</p>
<p>From a Harvard study on 517 separation families over a period of 4 years wide, children growing up under post-divorce shared parenting proved to be less depressed, exhibited less unadjusted behaviours, and achieved better school results than children growing up in post-divorce sole care. (Buchanan, MacCoby, Dornbusch, 1996.)</p>
<p>Also, boys growing up in shared parenting are found to have less emotional problems than boys growing up in sole care (Pojman 1982; Shiller 1986).</p>
<p><span style="font-size:11pt;"><strong>Adverse effects on children’s health and well-being of growing up fatherless in one-parent families</strong></span></p>
<p>The available research clearly shows that children growing up in sole care &#8211; mainly fatherless and with their mothers in mother-headed families &#8211; do much worse than children growing up in shared parenting.</p>
<p>Children being raised by one parent are at a greater risk for many things as they grow up, including health risks such as poorly controlled diabetes and asthma. (Holmes, 2007)</p>
<p>A Swedish large scale population study on children’s health found that children growing up fatherless in single-parent families also have more depression complaints, use more and earlier drugs and alcohol (binge-drinking), get more accidents and more often commit suicide, than children growing up in the care and with the involvement of both parents. (Swedish population study into the consequences of single-parent families on children, Ringbäck Weitoft, Hjern, Haglund, Rosén, 2003).</p>
<p>And a recent Dutch study (Olde Loohuis, 2009) on the importance of fathers for their children after parental separation and divorce by the Dutch University of Groningen in coöperation with Enova, Consultancy on Emancipation in the Dutch province of Drenthe, found that in the Dutch province of Drenthe 62% of all children in need of special youth care and youth welfare provided by the Dutch state originated from single parent families headed by mothers.</p>
<p>Also a consistency has now been determined between growing up in fatherless single-parent families and the prevalence of children being diagnosed with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder ADHD/ADD. Children in single parent families are at twice the risk of being ADHD-diagnosed and prescribed with the drug Ritalin than children from intact two-parent families (Strohschein, 2007).</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Child abuse risk and “new boyfriend-” or stepparent-risk</span></strong></p>
<p>Child abuse can happen in all types of families, but it happens most in single parent mother-headed families and in new “patchwork-families” with stepchildren.</p>
<p>Children, especially boys, growing up in single parent mother-headed families are at twice to 2,5 times the risk of child sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional and mental abuse and neglect by either the mother herself or her “new friend”, the so-called “stepparent”. (Holmes, 2007; AMK, 1999, 2000, 2001)</p>
<p>Brought into a situation of social exclusion from the paternal half of their families by the present mother-only custody and care practises in family law and family courts, and with their and paternal grandparents no longer involved or in their lives, isolated children more often &lt;become victims of emotional, physical and sexual abuse or neglect by the mother or her new boyfriend. The devastating results of social and family court policies giving prevalence to mother-only custody and care for the divorce children involved in terms of rising child abuse cases and occurring family-drama’s are now reported on frequently in today’s journals and newspapers of all of our societies.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Effects on children of growing up fatherless in single parent families in the different age groups (O’Neill, 2002)</span></strong></p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;">Children (0-12)</span></strong></p>
<p>If we take a closer look at the effects of growing up fatherless on the different age groups children (0-12) growing up in fatherless single-parent families have a greater risk of a life in poverty, run more risk on physical, emotional and sexual abuse, more often become runaways from home, have a greater risk of becoming homeless youths, have more risk of health complaints and have more problems at school and in their social contacts with others (O’Neill, 2002).</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;">Teenagers (12-18)</span></strong></p>
<p>Teenagers growing up in fatherless single-parent families have a greater risk of teenage-pregnancy, to end up in (youth) crime, to smoke, to use alcohol and drugs, of playing truant, to be suspended, of becoming drop-outs and ending their school careers at an early age school, and of getting adaptation problems (O’Neill, 2002).</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;">Young adults (18 onwards)</span></strong></p>
<p>And young adults, having grown up in fatherless single-parent families, stand a greater risk of not having finished a proper vocational education, earning lower incomes, becoming jobless and in need of benefits, at risk of becoming homeless, or of getting involved in crime, of developing chronic emotional and mental-health problems, of developing general physical health complaints, and sooner have cohabiting relations, more often have extramarital children, only to end up in separation and divorce more often. (Meta-study “Experimenting in living, The fatherless family”, Civitas, O’Neill, 2002).</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Parentification of children of divorce in single parent families</span></strong></p>
<p>British teenage-girls who have grown up in sole care or single parent families reported that they get stressed out and overloaded by the separation problems of their parents, especially caused by the call on them by their caring parent, in 90% of the cases the mother, for support in the fight concerning the children, put up with the other parent after divorce and separation. (Bliss survey, 2005: Girls take strain or parents’ split)</p>
<p>In single parent families it is often not the child who is being taken care of by the parent, but &#8211; as “mother’s little helper” &#8211; the child becomes an instrumental friend and partner to the parent in distress taking care of the parent’s welfare instead, thus forcing children of divorce into early maturation and depriving them of their youth. This phenomenon is documented in the psychological literature as that of “parentification”.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Post-divorce father involvement in children’s lives makes all the difference</span></strong></p>
<p>Another line of comparative research focuses on the different effects on children of growing up with either involved or not involved (i.e. excluded) non-residential fathers after parental separation and divorce.</p>
<p>Carlson (2006) found in her research “<em>Family structure, father involvement and behavioural effects on adolescents</em>” based on the 1996 and 2000 data cohorts of the USA National Longitudinal Youth Study on 2.733 10-14 year old adolescents living only with their mothers while their fathers were non-residential that the greater the involvement of fathers was in the lives of their adolescent children, the less behavioural problems the adolescents had in terms of aggression, antisocial behaviour, and negative feelings like anxiety, concern, depression and low self-esteem.</p>
<p><span style="font-size:11pt;"><strong>Shared parenting leads to fewer conflicts between the parents and between the child and its parents</strong></span></p>
<p>It is frequently contested by antagonists to shared parenting that present shared or equal parenting arrangements are self-selective on the issue of pre-existing conflict levels between the separating parents as they are court-provided on a voluntary base of consensus and consent between the two divorcing parents involved.</p>
<p>It is therefore important to note in this context, that the better outcomes for children documented in the quoted research above have also been found in research that <span style="text-decoration:underline;">controlled for pre-existing levels of conflicts between the parents</span> as a self-selecting factor for shared parenting.</p>
<p>Furthermore it is also frequently claimed and presumed by antagonists to post-divorce shared parenting arrangements that shared parenting is the cause of more post-divorce conflicts between the divorced parents as it raises the level of interactions and contacts between the two separated parents.</p>
<p>The meta-study conducted by Robert Bauserman (APA, 2002) however found that, in contrast with what is usually claimed, the number and levels of conflicts between the parents in shared parenting arrangements strongly diminished in comparison with the number of conflicts in situations of sole care with access arrangements. As a result these lower level of conflicts between the divorced parents in shared parenting arrangements contributes greatly to better child welfare and well being.</p>
<p>Moreover, not only do parents experience less mutual conflicts in shared parenting arrangements, but also children growing up in shared parenting appear to have fewer conflicts with their parents, than children growing up in sole care of one parent (Karp, 1982).</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Less loyalty and allegiance conflicts</span></strong></p>
<p>It is also frequently claimed by antagonists to shared parenting that children growing up in shared parenting arrangements with both parents do not have a place and home of their own (“Do not take away the children’s home”, it is claimed). Children in shared parenting arrangements are pictured as being constantly underway between houses and as being continuously exposed to conflicts of allegiance. Available research however confounds this picture. Children are more flexible &#8211; within reason of course &#8211; than we expect them to be. What is more important to them is keeping their relations with both their parents. (Steinman, 1981, Luepnitz, 1986, Shiller, 1986, Coller, 1988, Tornstam, 2000).</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Children want it themselves</span></strong></p>
<p>The last argument these antagonists make against shared parenting is that proponents of shared parenting only argue from the point of view of the parents and do not take the interests and wishes of children into consideration. From child-research in which children themselves are questioned on their preferences however, it becomes clear that children themselves also most prefer shared parenting and care from <span style="text-decoration:underline;">both</span> their parents after separation (Fabricius, 2003). Children themselves most want to preserve and maintain their relations with <span style="text-decoration:underline;">both</span> parents after divorce and separation. They consider having narrow links and bonds with both their parents as being important to them, while growing up in shared parenting leaves them more satisfied than growing up in sole care. (Kelly, 1993).</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Breaking the cycle of broken families: Less divorces and separations</span></strong></p>
<p>Finally, children of divorce growing up in single parent mother-headed families themselves are at a 3,5 times greater risk of separation and divorce later on in their lives (Spruijt, 2007), thus contributing to a self perpetuating and accelerating cycle of new broken families into the future.</p>
<p>Post-divorce shared parenting arrangements on the other hand however – instead of accelerating the pace of separation and divorce resulting into broken families in the future &#8211; also prove to be a valuable incentive for keeping two-parent families together when possible. The more shared parenting arrangements are to be implemented instead of mother-only custody and care after separation, the fewer parents are inclined to go for a divorce. (Brinig &amp; Allen, 2000) This contributes directly to the best interest of the children involved, as all of the research so far has indicated that intact two-parent families are still the best and most ideal setting for children to grow up in and flourish into the jewel in society&#8217;s crown they deserve to be, instead of growing to be a liability and burden on the state.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">To come to a first conclusion </span></strong></p>
<p>Overseeing the presented and available social research objectively and rationally one is inclined to ask therefore why sole care and residency at present still is championed, and shared parenting still isn’t, as the preferred default and dominant presumption for post-divorce parenting arrangements in Western family law systems and family court practises? <a name="_ftnref4" href="#_ftn4"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[4]</span></span></a> In any other sphere of life such a degree of dysfunctionality would not be tolerated.</p>
<p>Seen from a point of view of the best interest of the child the current practice of sole care in family law should be considered as completely incomprehensible. If we really &#8211; and not in name only &#8211; give priority and weight to the best interests of children, then the available research provides us with a very clear message. This message is that:</p>
<ul>
<li>after intact two-parent families, the outcomes for children in post-divorce shared parenting arrangements prove to be the next best situation for children to grow up in</li>
<li>post-divorce shared parenting arrangements are in the best interest of the child(ren), while sole care arrangements in single parent families are not</li>
<li>shared parenting and keeping both parents involved in children’s lives after parental separation and divorce seems to be the only way to go.</li>
</ul>
<p>This very clear message does not only emerge from the available social research discussed. It is also communicated to us by the civil servants that are in charge of society’s institutions that have to deal on a daily basis with the effects of mother-only custody, care and residency practises and fatherlessness of children.</p>
<p>In April 2008 the British senior judge Mr. Justice Coleridge, responsible for family courts across South-West England, shortly after having passed judgement in the divorce of Sir Paul McCartney from Heather Mills, in a speech to British family lawyers launched a devastating attack on the fractured and fragmentising British society caused by family breakdown and divorce. In his speech he warned British government that family life in the fractured British society was now not only in disarray but in complete <span style="text-decoration:underline;">meltdown</span>. Quoting from the Daily Mail this is what the senior judge said:</p>
<blockquote><p>“<strong>Family life is in &#8216;meltdown&#8217;.</strong></p>
<p>Family breakdown is a &#8220;cancer&#8221; behind almost every evil affecting the country. Mr Justice Coleridge blames youth crime, child abuse, drug addiction and binge-drinking on the &#8220;meltdown&#8221; of relations between parents and children. He warns that the collapse of the family unit is a threat to the nation as bad as terrorism, crime, drugs or global warming.</p>
<p>The speech to family lawyers contains a fierce attack on the &#8220;neglect&#8221; of successive governments. The 58-year-old judge, who is married with three grown-up children, will say family breakdown is an epidemic affecting all levels of society from the Royal Family down. It is &#8220;on a scale, depth and breadth which few of us could have imagined even &#8220;a decade ago. It is a never-ending carnival of human misery. A ceaseless river of human distress. &#8220;I am not saying every broken family produces dysfunctional children but I am saying that almost every dysfunctional child is the product of a broken family.&#8221;</p>
<p>The judge, who is in charge of family courts across South-West England, will say he has a duty to speak out. He will call on the Government to put the family at the top of its agenda, alongside the economy and the war on terror &#8211; and make it &#8220;rather more important than taking oaths of allegiance&#8221;. His speech will say: &#8220;Families are the cells which make up the body of society. If the cells are unhealthy and undernourished, or at worse cancerous and growing haphazard and out of control, in the end the body succumbs. &#8220;In some of the more heavily populated urban areas, family life is quite frankly in meltdown or completely unrecognisable . . . it is on an epidemic scale. In some areas of the country family life in the old sense no longer exists.&#8221;</p>
<p>The judge condemns families with a mother and several absentee fathers. He says: &#8220;Single parents often do a fantastic job, but a great many, perhaps through no fault of their own, do not. &#8220;A large number of families now consist of children being brought up by mothers who have children by a number of different fathers, none of whom take any part in their lives or support or upbringing. &#8220;These are not isolated, oneoff cases. They are part of the stock-in-trade of the family courts.&#8221;</p>
<p>Judge Coleridge has spent the past eight years presiding over cases of divorce, children in care and family break-up.”<br />
<em>(Coleridge, Daily Mail, 4 April 2008)</em></p></blockquote>
<p>And speaking to <em>The Times </em>of 21 August 2006, Rod Morgan, the chairman of the UK Youth Justice Board, said:</p>
<blockquote><p>“What many young children lack are any sorts of boundaries being set to their behaviour so that literally they don’t know how to behave properly. There has not been a role model to explain things and to set boundaries. Most children we know like a reasonably structured existence and many don’t have it,” he said. He said that, without change, increasing numbers of young people would be drawn into the formal criminal justice system, a trend that has accelerated since Labour came to power. Between 35,000 and 40,000 young people are today being prosecuted in front of magistrates. Ten years ago many would have been punished informally outside the courts. “What magistrates are telling us is that many young people are coming before the youth courts who, in their judgment, don’t need to be [there]. … — the police are more and more being used as a disciplinary back-up force …</p>
<p>… Mr Morgan blames changes in demographics and the rise in the proportion of lone-parent families, particularly those headed by a woman, for the problems. “We know that the proportion of families where young parents — often mothers bringing up a child alone without the presence of a male role model and a father present on the scene, and without the support of an extended family — are having to cope with more and more challenging child behaviour in fairly deprived areas.” He said that some children were being raised in homes without even the most basic discipline being imposed, such as instructions about what time they should be up or back indoors. That behaviour presented serious problems in schools, where teachers’ confidence was undermined by the threat of being taken to court or by parents who have no regard for authority.” <em>(Morgan, The Times, 21 August 2006)</em></p></blockquote>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;">4. Fracturing societies: the scope of the problem of broken families and fatherlessness</span></strong></p>
<p>To give a better idea of the scope and extent of the problem of broken families and fatherlessness in most countries of the European Union, allow me to first draw you a picture of the present situation of family breakdown in the Netherlands, as that is the country I come from and know the best.</p>
<p>An estimated total number of 60.000 new children – coming from both breaking marriages and breaking registered partnerships &#8211; are experiencing the divorce or separation of their parents in the Netherlands every year (every day 160 Dutch children are experiencing the divorce and separation of their parents).</p>
<p>From a total of 3.2 million children in the Netherlands between the ages of 0 and 18 years old, an estimated 1 million children have already experienced the divorce or separation of their parents. This has resulted in a situation where it is now estimated that 1/3 of all Dutch children are from broken families.</p>
<p>Most of these Dutch children of divorce and separation (an estimated 85% to 90%, i.e. 850.000 to 900.000 children) grow up in mother-only care and residency in single-parent mother-headed families with their fathers being non-resident and living elsewhere.</p>
<p>Measured one year from the time of divorce or separation an estimated 45% of the Dutch children of divorce and separation have lost all further contact with their fathers and are growing up completely fatherless in mother-headed single-parent-families or patchwork stepfamilies. Another 45% of the Dutch children of divorce and separation are estimated to grow up with their mother while their fathers are being marginalised and the children have only minimal, reduced and restricted contact and access arrangements with their fathers of one weekend every two weeks and some extra time during school holidays. (Cresskill, Griffith &amp; Hekman, 1986)</p>
<p>This results in a situation in the Netherlands where an estimated 500.000 Dutch children of divorce and separation grow up completely fatherless (15% of all Dutch children), while another 500.000 Dutch children of divorce and separation grow up with marginalised fathers (another 15% of all Dutch children).</p>
<p>This situation of 30% of children left fatherless or with marginalized fathers after parental separation is prevalent in most European Union countries, including the new East European members. The incidence of fatherlessness tends to be still somewhat lower in Southern European countries and higher in Northern European countries.</p>
<p>For future trends we need to look at the USA, being at the forefront of the situation where Europe is also heading to. And in the USA now already 40% of all children are growing up completely fatherless (Source: Newsweek figures from January 2006).</p>
<p>A recent Dutch research study on the Parental Alienation Syndrome in the Netherlands (Kaplan, 2008) found PAS in the Netherlands to be a much bigger problem than was previously estimated. Some of the main conclusions of the Dutch study on Parental Alienation are:</p>
<ul>
<li>72% of Dutch separated fathers believe PAS to be a problem</li>
<li>64% of mothers believe PAS to be a problem</li>
<li>According to father&#8217;s PAS is a severe problem in 21% of cases</li>
<li>But according to mothers PAS is only a severe problem in 10% of cases</li>
<li>Overall Dutch fathers consider serious PAS twice as big a problem as Dutch mothers</li>
</ul>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;">5. The present status of shared parenting legislation after parental separation in Europe</span></strong></p>
<p>Current judicial practice of mother care and custody is heavily influenced by John Bowlby and Anna Freud. In the 1950’s and 1960’s this view of mother’s role was revolutionary. The validity of this view has now been doubted and the judiciary has not kept pace with present day psychiatry.</p>
<p>The upshot of this is an over-reliance by judges on their own abilities to be able to award custody in terms of black and white (father versus mother) instead of shades of grey, i.e. shared parenting. The focus of the courts seem to be always in making the grandiose custody statement for children, instead of delivering care and residence arrangements in minute detail making shared parenting into a real possibility and delivering peace between the two adversarial parents by keeping both parents involved in children’s lives.</p>
<p>The present dominant European family legislation and family court practice regarding court ordered parenting arrangements after parental separation, is still a combination of <span style="text-decoration:underline;">joint legal</span> custody legislation combined with <span style="text-decoration:underline;">sole physical</span> custody. Courts are giving children to the sole care and residency of one parent, i.e. the custodial parent who is nearly always the mother, while the noncustodial parent is made nonresidential to the children and further put at a distance and excluded from his/her own children by:</p>
<ul>
<li>highly limited access or contact arrangements for noncustodial parents (normally limited to one weekend every two weeks, making serious parenting impossible)</li>
<li>a deliberate policy of non-intervention by the courts when court-ordered access arrangements are broken by the custodial parent, usually the mother</li>
<li>severely repressive legislation aimed at criminalizing noncustodial parents who do not accept being excluded from their children (stalking legislation, DV legislation, abduction legislation, restrictive injunction orders, etc.)</li>
<li>fiscal and welfare policies and practices are geared to favor and support children, but only when living with one half of their separated families. This is often combined with extraction of money from the officially designated non-resident parent for support of the &#8220;family with children&#8221; which the state itself has imposed upon that family.</li>
</ul>
<p>This choice of discriminative and repressive instruments implemented to achieve social policy goals seems to be common in all countries of the European Union</p>
<p>More and more policy makers are seeing the writing on the wall. The ramifications include rising youth crime, an aging population and a lower birthrate. The well-documented disastrous effects that family law and family court policies have on children&#8217;s lives are becoming obvious, with ever increasing demands for larger budgets so that social services can meet the demand of broken families. The consequences of children growing up excluded from half of their families cannot be ignored.</p>
<p>The reaction of policy makers so far &#8211; and this can be observed as a generalized reaction to many policy situations today &#8211; is to make largely cosmetic adjustments to the present defective system which will take an inordinate time to have any effect (if ever), These types of policy already have a proven track record of failure. To make a mark on the problem, it is not enough to copy failed solutions from other jurisdictions.</p>
<p><span style="font-size:11pt;"><strong>Looking at the present trend in family law reform in EU countries (Europe)</strong></span></p>
<p>We are now witnessing a distinctive shift in the different national family law systems of the countries in the European Union. Following the strong previous family law tradition of single care, residency and custody orders and practices favouring mothers during the second half of the twentieth century (as the only meaningful parent after divorce), There is a distinctive shift towards more equal and shared parenting arrangements and keeping both parents involved in the post-divorce care and residency arrangements for their children.</p>
<p>The first mainly symbolic steps of acknowledging the importance of both parents in children’s lives were based on Article 8 (Article on family life) of the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR) (Council of Europe, 1950, 2003). As a result a post-divorce presumption of joint <strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;">legal</span></strong> custody was put in effect in family law since the late nineties of last century (1996/1998) in several EU countries, including Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands.</p>
<p>The present general European trend within family law reform in European countries is, however, most definitely pointing strongly in the direction of moving away from sole physical custody and care legislation with court practices tending towards joint and equal physical custody and care legislation. Both trends recognize the importance of keeping both parents and extended families actively involved in children&#8217;s lives after parental separation.</p>
<p>Let me give you some brief summaries by country on the present state of Shared Parenting Legislation in the countries of the European Union:</p>
<ol>
<li><strong>Italy</strong> now has a mix of joint legal custody and elements of joint physical custody since a law change that came into effect on 16th March 2006.</li>
<li><strong>France</strong> has a mix of joint legal custody and elements of joint physical custody (Residence Alternee) that came into effect in 2002. An estimated 15% of French children of divorce are now growing up in shared parenting and alternating residence arrangements.</li>
<li><strong>Belgium</strong> on the initiative of its Socialist Party now has implemented presumptive 50/50 joint physical custody legislation (effective bi-location of the children) after parental separation in both its House of Commons and Senate which came into effect when it was formally published by the Belgian Federal Government on the 4th of September 2006. The new Belgian federal law on bi-location will be discussed at more length in my presentation below.</li>
<li>In the <strong>Netherlands</strong> joint <span style="text-decoration:underline;">legal</span> custody was implemented in family law by the Dutch Parliament in 1996 making joint <span style="text-decoration:underline;">legal</span> custody the standard for post-divorce parental authority. And with the new Dutch Law on Continued Parenting after Separation (no. 30145), that will go into effect on April 1, 2009, this was followed by the introduction in Dutch family law of the basic principle of the equality of both parents and the presumption of equal parenting (both before and after divorce or separation, and regardless of whether the parents were previously married or not). The new Dutch family law also introduces a strong incentive for separating parents to come up with a mutually agreed parenting plan during the separation and divorce proceedings.<br />
The new Dutch law reform will be discussed at more length in my presentation below. Considering however the poor Dutch tradition on effective family law reform, the mainly decorative value of Dutch family court orders for fathers and the Dutch family court’s tradition of legislating from the bench, it still remains to be seen what this new Dutch law will bring in day-to-day family court practises for divorcing and separating parents and their children.</li>
<li><strong>Norway</strong> still has sole physical custody but its Minister of Justice has already announced (in 2007) a complete family law review based on the principles of presumptive joint physical custody. Up until now, however, this has not yet materialized.</li>
<li><strong>Ireland</strong> has, since the advent of Parental Equality (the Irish lobby group associated with Liam O&#8217;Gogain) circa. 1993, been considering the possibility of a change to laws of joint physical custody &#8211; which gives some gauge of the lack of seriousness with which such laws are being considered.</li>
<li>In <strong>Germany</strong>, a professional court intervention model called the Cochem model, based on principles of shared parenting, is gathering strength. This German Cochem court practice model will be discussed at more length in my presentation below. In this model parents are only allowed access to the family court for parental separation and divorce after they have themselves also filed a shared post-divorce parenting plan agreed by and between both of them.<br />
The German federal minister of Justice has previously (February 2006) announced future family law reform in which “elements of the Cochem model of multi-disciplinary court orchestrated intervention” are to be integrated into the German family law. Which elements, however, are as of yet unknown. This family law reform at the federal level has, therefore, not yet materialized.</li>
<li><strong>Malta</strong> also has some form of shared parenting presumption according to Maltese family rights organizations. As of yet, however, it is unclear what is the exact nature of their shared parenting presumption.</li>
<li><strong>Spain</strong> introduced a new shared parenting law in mid-2005 which is regarded as wholly inadequate by Spanish family rights lobbyists. Government officials and professionals on their own initiative are attempting to introduce policies reintegrating alienated children with their alienated parents and there is a vigorous movement for change.</li>
<li>The <strong>UK</strong> under the present Labour government has, as of yet, no effective shared parenting laws in existence. In his simultaneous presentation at the Drama Conference based on a study of the British Law Commission’s research papers Robert Whiston found that court-ordered shared parenting was commonly practiced in the south part of England in the second half of the last century until it was eliminated by the Children Act 1989 (Whiston, 2009a). At present, the oppositional <strong>Conservative Party</strong> – which is expected to win the next 2009 elections &#8211; has adopted Equal Parenting Family Law Reform as part of its election program. Also some judicially-motivated efforts to introduce norms of shared parenting do exist, in spite of the family-hostile parameters of the present law and fiscal framework.</li>
<li><strong>Luxembourg</strong> is also said to have introduced post-divorce joint physical custody legislation.</li>
</ol>
<p><span style="font-size:11pt;"><strong>Other jurisdictions</strong></span></p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Australia</strong> passed a Shared Parenting Bill in the Senate in 2006 of the window dressing sort. Australia in fact is a good example of the sort of jurisdiction that repeatedly passing pretend laws that are having no real effects on keeping both parents involved in children’s lives after parental separation. And each time it is claimed that the present law proposal will be better than the last, while children of separation continue to grow up in a family-hostile environment. The same pattern can be observed in EU-countries like the UK, the Netherlands and Spain.</li>
<li>In the <strong>USA</strong> several states have implemented shared parenting legislation.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;">6. Recent developments in family law and family courts in Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany</span></strong></p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Family law reform in Belgium</span></strong></p>
<p>Belgium already had a presumption of joint <span style="text-decoration:underline;">legal</span> custody in its family law since the nineties of the last century.</p>
<p>Since 5 November 2006 the Belgian federal law on “bi-location” or &#8220;alternating residence&#8221; also came into effect after having passed both houses in the Belgian federal parliament. This new law additionally introduced a presumption of joint <span style="text-decoration:underline;">physical</span> custody, care and residency as the norm or preferred post-divorce parenting arrangement to be ordered by the Belgian family courts. Furthermore immediate unilateral court-access for either of the divorced or separated parents in requesting for additional reinforcement orders if needed was introduced.</p>
<p>Contrary to common belief the Belgian family law reform of September 2006 however did not introduce a 50/50 joint physical care and residency arrangement as the fixed end-result for all divorcing or separating Belgian parents. Instead it introduced a presumption of dual location or shared residency which by law should be taken into serious consideration and thorough investigation with priority in each individual case by the Belgian family courts and judges on the request of <span style="text-decoration:underline;">either one of the divorcing parents separately.</span></p>
<p>In the situation where both separating parents consensually forward shared residency, care and access proposals between the two of them in the divorce and separation proceedings, the law puts the Belgian family courts and judges under the obligation to accept those mutually consented proposals as leading in the court-orders to be subsequently imposed in the divorce and separation proceedings.</p>
<p>In effect the wishes with regard to the post-divorce residency, care and access arrangements of either parent parties involved were thus again acknowledged and reinstated at the core of Belgian family law and family court proceedings regarding physical custody, residency and care. By law Belgian family court judges were endowed with the obligation to explicitly specify in their court-orders their decisions and provisions with regard to the imposed post-divorce residence and care arrangements <span style="text-decoration:underline;">in writing</span> if they were to deviate from the presumptive and preferred bi-location or shared parenting arrangement in their court-orders.</p>
<p>These new Belgian law provisions have put shared parenting at the forefront of the family courts decision-making regarding the care, access and residency of the children involved, while the need and obligation imposed by law on the Belgian family courts and judges to extensively specify in writing in their imposed court-orders as to why a shared parenting or bi-location order was not imposed, opens the possibility for appeal of the courts decisions and motivations.</p>
<p>A further additional but underestimated new element of the Belgian family law reform is the introduction of immediate or priority access to the courts and judges on the request of either one of the parties one-sidedly. This can be activated unilaterally and individually &#8211; <span style="text-decoration:underline;">without the need of being represented by a lawyer</span> at the court-session requested for &#8211; for additional reinforcement orders of the court when the court-ordered parenting arrangements were not sufficiently complied with by the other parent and when there were complaints about the other parent with regard to abiding by the specific parenting arrangements laid down by the judge in the original case residency, care and access order(s) given.</p>
<p>Although the law, as a federal national framework, has been in effect for only 2,5 years &#8211; and so it is too early to evaluate its effects thoroughly &#8211; first impressions are that it has contributed strongly to the Kantian appeasement between divorcing and separating parents in Belgium. This contributes to both the leading civil and family law principle of appeasement between conflicting parties as well as to the best interest of the children involved who now flourish far better under the care of the appeased but separated parents.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Family law reform in the Netherlands</span></strong></p>
<p>In 1996 joint <span style="text-decoration:underline;">legal</span> custody (in Dutch: gezamenlijk gezag) was implemented by law by the Dutch Parliament making joint legal custody the standard for post-divorce parenting in the Netherlands to oblige with EVRM Article 8 on the Right to Family Life.</p>
<p>However, shortly after the introduction of the law, the family courts in conjunction with the Dutch High Court neutralised the Dutch Parliament’s specific intent for a law by to keep both parents involved in children’s lives.</p>
<p>Perversely, the judiciary undermined Parliament’s sovereignty by stating that joint legal custody could be awarded but that it did not automatically entitle fathers to contact and access arrangements.</p>
<p>Over the past few years the Dutch Parliament has taken several new initiatives to introduce joint physical custody and equal parenting as the legal presumption for post-divorce parenting arrangements.</p>
<p>The first attempt was the legal initiative on administrative divorce (divorce without the use of a court and representing lawyers) and continued parenting, No. 29676 by parliament in 2004 (Luchtenveld, 2004), better known as the Luchtenveld-proposal <a name="_ftnref5" href="#_ftn5"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[5]</span></span></a>. It passed the Dutch House of Commons in the winter of 2005 only to be left stranded in the Dutch Senate in the summer of 2006. This however was mainly caused by the “Administrative Divorce” part of the law being contradictory to lawyers’ interests, which hit on heavy resistance with the Dutch judiciary <a name="_ftnref6" href="#_ftn6"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[6]</span></span></a>.</p>
<p>Another new attempt for family law reform, better known as the “Donner-proposal”, was then made on the initiative of the Ministry of Justice with the Law on Continued Parenting after Separation (No. 30145). This law while it passed in the Dutch House of Commons in June 2006, on the initiative of the Dutch Socialist Party was unexpectedly altered by a constitutional majority amendment introducing equal parenting as the presumption for post-divorce parenting. On November 25<sup>th</sup> 2008 this law passed the Dutch Senate. It went into effect two days ago on April 1<sup>st</sup> 2009.</p>
<p>This new law has the following main positive features with regard to shared parenting arrangements and the reinforcement of parenting orders by the Dutch family courts:</p>
<ul>
<li>It introduces and aims to guarantee in Dutch family law the basic principle of equality for both parents and the presumption of equal parenting both before and after divorce or separation, and regardless of whether the parents were previously married or not.</li>
<li>It introduces a strong incentive for parents to come up with a mutually agreed parenting plan during the separation and divorce proceedings.</li>
<li>Adding new but complicated reinforcement possibilities to the toolbox of options available to judges to ensure compliance with court-ordered parenting arrangements.</li>
</ul>
<p>However, the law also has some distinctly negative features for shared parenting as it once again re-opens the possibilities for the family courts to deviate from the Parliamentary default presumption of joint legal custody. This could give rise to new ways and new reasons for a court to exclude a father from parenting his children. For a more detailed account of the features in the new Dutch family law on parenting after divorce however I further refer to the Appendix A with this presentation.</p>
<p><a name="_Toc215698304"></a><span style="font-size:10pt;"><strong>Tragic history of Dutch family courts and family justice</strong></span><strong> </strong></p>
<p>The tragedy of Dutch family law reforms over the last few decades is best exemplified in its complete and utter incompetence in all matters legislative. What new dawn this Dutch law will usher in for divorcing and separating parents and their children therefore remains hypothetical.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;">Legislating from the bench</span></strong></p>
<p>One of the main problems we face in the Netherlands is the persistent interference by the judiciary after Dutch legislative intentions have been democratically made clear.</p>
<p>There is a long history of Dutch family courts compromising parliamentary efforts to find a route towards post-divorce equal and shared parenting by continuing to give preference to sole care arrangements.</p>
<p>Instead of honouring the democratic principle of the Trias Politica in passing judgement based on parliament’s legislation, Dutch judges and courts are instead occupied with taking the legislational chair themselves changing the law and its intent. <em>De facto</em> this places them above and beyond the law set by the highest court in the land, Parliament.</p>
<p>To date the Dutch parliament and politician have not proved to be strong enough to withstand this onslaught by the Dutch judiciary. As a result time and again Dutch politics and parliament in their legislational efforts do try to keep both parents involved in their children&#8217;s lives after parental separation, BUT IN NAME AND INTENT ONLY, while in the facts of the matter and the laws being implemented time and again it is proved that the Dutch family courts and judges are turning over the children to only one of the parents to the exclusion of the other.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;">Dutch family court orders at best only have decorational value for fathers</span></strong></p>
<p>Another problem is the long previous “laissez-faire” history of utterly poor Dutch family court and family justice performances when it comes to the issue of any reinforcement of the family court orders that have been given adding to a situation where Dutch family courts are among the very worst in the European Union in implementing any family law.</p>
<p>Till now Dutch family court orders have had no executional value or discretion whatsoever. As one off the Dutch family court judges previously admitted herself Dutch family court-orders usually aren’t worth the paper they are written on and till now “at best have only decorational wallpaper-value for those concerned”.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Reforms in Germany – The Cochem court-practice model</span></strong></p>
<p>Several years ago a family court judge Jurgen Rudolph – based in the German regional family court of Cochem was confronted time and again with two equally capable parents. Both were forced to fight each other &#8211; almost to the death &#8211; in adversarial court proceedings. His radical solution will be detailed later in this paper.</p>
<p>Also in Germany a post-divorce presumption of joint legal custody was already in effect in family law since 1998, when several years ago the family court judge Jurgen Rudolph (Rudolph, 2007) &#8211; residing at the German regional family court of the city and district of Cochem &#8211; in his courtroom bench was confronted with capable parents fighting each other with the help of their lawyers (and to the detriment of their children) over post-divorce arrangements concerning the residency, care and access over their children and demanding from him as the judge to decide in favour of either of them. Parents and lawyers from both sides seemed to be only involved in painting their adversarial &#8216;opponents&#8217; as black and incapable as possible during the divorce proceedings in the family court.</p>
<p>The position family court Judge Jurgen Rudolph took in this was that he considered post-divorce physical custody arrangements between principally fit and capable parents not to be a standard-decision for the family court and himself as the family judge to make and decide on by default over the heads of either one of the parents. On the basis of the lawfully existing care-obligation in Germany for both parents to care for their children the making of physical custody arrangements over their children had by default to be considered primarily as a matter of responsibility for both the divorcing parents themselves to decide on in the first place.</p>
<p>Resulting from the in-fights between parents and their lawyers taking place in adversarial divorce proceedings, the regional family court of Cochem then experimented by changing its family court practises. In the new family court practice divorcing parents were strongly encouraged by the court to first come up themselves with a mutually and consensually agreed &#8220;parenting plan&#8221; for the residency, care and access to and over their children, as a mandatory precondition before being able to enter and finalise their divorce settlements in the Cochem family court.</p>
<p>As the parents now needed to come up with a mutually agreed parenting plan or parenting arrangement proposal, this mandatory demand of the court both not only resulted in a reinstatement of the equal level playing field and cooperation between the parents looking for divorce (instead of the previous court practises magnifying the differences and conflicts between the parents). But equally important, it also lead to a complete practise overhaul within the professions involved in the divorce proceedings in the family court.</p>
<p>Instead of aggravating the parents in their conflict, all professions, i.e. lawyers, social workers, youth welfare workers, etc., began cooperating with each other in order to offer mediatory and other support services and help to the divorcing parents who were in demand of support in making the parenting plan needed in order to finalise their divorce proceedings. In time, the cooperation between professionals evolved from cooperation on the individual case levels to a more structured network cooperation of the involved professions around the Cochem family court.</p>
<p>These changes in Cochem court practises and the resulting changes in practises by the surrounding professionals in the meantime have earned wide recognition in Germany and are nationally referred to in Germany as the Cochem court practises (in German: Cochemer Praxis) or the Cochem model (in German: Cochemer Modell). They are now also taken into evaluation and consideration in a future planned reform of family law by the German federal ministry of justice in Berlin.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">Comparing Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany</span></strong></p>
<p>The separate developments in these three European countries are interesting because of their convergence. In Belgium and the Netherlands developments have started top-down so to speak from the national or federal political-legislational level with the introduction of a new family law creating a national framework and new guidelines for the functioning of the family courts. While in Germany these same developments started not top-down but bottom-up from the family courts themselves experimenting with less adversarial proceedings and court practises regarding post-divorce residency, care and access arrangements and orders.</p>
<p>Of the law reforms in these three European countries the Belgian law reform on bi-location is to be regarded as the most clear-cut in its choice for shared parenting. The family law developments in the three European countries discussed however all share in their emphasis a distinctive shift towards implementing the concept of shared parenting and restoring an <span style="text-decoration:underline;">equal level playing field</span> between both divorcing parents in family law and/or family court practises as opposed to the previous mother-only single parenting presumption that has dominated family law and family court practises in the countries of the European Union for so long.</p>
<p><span style="font-size:12pt;"><strong>References:</strong></span><strong> </strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Advies- en Meldpunten Kindermishandeling AMK (Child Protection Agencies Netherlands), <em>Jaarverslagen tot 2002 (Yearly reports on child abuse till 2002)</em>, Netherlands</li>
<li>Bauserman, R. (2002) <em>Child Adjustment in Joint-Custody Versus Sole-Custody: A Meta-Analytic Review</em>, Journal of Family Psychology, American Psychological Association APA, Inc.2002, Vol. 16, No. 1, 91-102 <a href="http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/fam16191.pdf">http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/fam16191.pdf</a></li>
<li>Belgium Federal Government, <em>Wet op de beurtelingse huisvesting (Belgian federal law on bi-location)</em>, in effect since September 2006</li>
<li>Bliss Survey (2005) <em>Girls take strain of parents&#8217; split</em>, The Times &#8211; Britain, UK News, By Alexandra Frean, Social Affairs Correspondent, February 24, 2005 <a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-1497111,00.html">http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-1497111,00.html</a></li>
<li>Bredefeld, G.M. (1985) <em>Joint Custody and Remarriage: its effects on marital adjustment and children</em>, Doctoral Thesis, California School of Professional Psychology, Fresno. UMI No. 85-10926</li>
<li>Brinig, M.F., Allen, D.W. (2000) <em>&#8216;These boots are made for walking&#8217;: why most divorce filers are women</em>, American Law and Economics Review V2 N1 2000 (126-169)</li>
<li>Buchanan, C.M., MacCoby, E.E., &amp; Dornbusch, S.M. (1996). <em>Adolescents after divorce</em>, Harvard University Press, 1996-10-01, ISBN-13: 9780674005174, ISBN: 0674005171</li>
<li>Carlson, M.J. (2006) <em>Family structure, father involvement and behavioural effects on adolescents</em>, Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol 68, No 1, February 2006, pp 137-154</li>
<li>Cresskill, N.J. Griffiths, J., Hekman, E.G.A. (1985), <em>De totstandkoming van een bezoekregeling na echtscheiding (The realisation of access arrangements after divorce)</em>, University of Groningen</li>
<li>Coleridge, Mr. Justice (2008) <em>Family life is in &#8216;meltdown&#8217;: Judge launches devastating attack on our fractured society</em>, UK Daily Mail, By Steve Doughty, 4 April 2008, <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=557377&amp;in_page_id=1770">http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=557377&amp;in_page_id=1770</a></li>
<li>Coller, D. (1988) <em>Joint Custody: Research, Theory, and Policy</em>, Family Processes 27:459-469.</li>
<li>Cowan, D.B. (1982) <em>Mother Custody versus Joint Custody: Children`s parental Relationship and Adjustment</em>, Doctoral Thesis, University of Washington. UMI No. 82-18213.</li>
<li>Cochem, Arbeitskreise Trennung und Scheidung, Die Cochemer Praxis und das Cochemer Modell, <a href="http://www.ak-cochem.de/">http://www.ak-cochem.de</a></li>
<li>Cowan, D.B. (1982) <em>Mother Custody versus Joint Custody: Children`s parental Relationship and Adjustment</em>, Doctoral Thesis, University of Washington. UMI No. 82-18213.</li>
<li>Council of Europe, <em>European Convention for Human Rights (ECHR), Article 8, </em>Rome, 4 November 1950, Registry of the European Court of Human Rights, September 2003 <a href="http://www.echr.coe.int/nr/rdonlyres/d5cc24a7-dc13-4318-b457-5c9014916d7a/0/englishanglais.pdf">http://www.echr.coe.int/nr/rdonlyres/d5cc24a7-dc13-4318-b457-5c9014916d7a/0/englishanglais.pdf</a></li>
<li>Dutch Government, Wet op het voortgezet ouderschap na scheiding (Law on Continued Parenting after Separation) no. 30145, Dutch House of Commons, in effect since April 1, 2009.</li>
<li>Fabricius, W. V. (2003). <em>Listening to children of divorce: New findings that diverge from Wallerstein, Lewis, and Blakeslee</em>. Family Relations, 52 (4), 385–396.</li>
<li>Handley, S. (1985) <em>The experience of the latency age child in sole and joint custody: A report on a comparative study</em>, Doctoral dissertation. California Graduate School of Marriage and Family Therapy.</li>
<li>Holmes W.C. (2007) <em>Men’s childhood sexual abuse histories by one-parent versus two-parent status of childhood home</em>, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, March 2007</li>
<li>Kaplan E. (2008), <em>Ouderverstoting in Nederland; Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS) en loyaliteitsproblemen bij recente scheidingsgezinnen (Parental alienation in the Netherlands; PAS and loyalty problems in recently divorced families)</em>, Masterthesis in Pedagogical Sciences, University of Utrecht, 31 July 2008 <a href="http://oudervervreemding.wordpress.com/2008/07/31/00003">http://oudervervreemding.wordpress.com/2008/07/31/00003</a></li>
<li>Karp, E.B. (1982) <em>Children`s adjustment in joint and single custody: An Empirical Study</em>. Doctoral thesis, California school of professional psychology, Berkeley. UMI No. 83-6977.</li>
<li>Kelly, J.B. (1981) <em>Visiting after divorce: Research findings and clinical implications</em>, in Abi, L.E., Stuarts, I.R. (eds) <em>Children of separation and divorce: Management and treatment</em>, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.</li>
<li>Kelly, J. (1993). <em>Developing and implementing post-divorce parenting plans: Does the forum make a difference?</em> In J. Bray and C. Depner (Eds)., Non-Residential Parenting: New Vistas in Family Living, Chapter 7 (pp. 136-155). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.</li>
<li>Kunst A.E., Meerding W.J., Varenik N., Polder J.J., Mackenbach J.P. (2007) <em>Social differences in health care utilisation and costs in the Netherlands in 2003</em>; RIVM report 270751017, ISBN: 978-90-6960-173-1, in Dutch</li>
<li>Livingston, J.A. (1983) <em>Children after Divorce: A Psychosocial analysis of the effects of custody on self esteem</em>. Doctoral thesis 1983. State University of New York at Buffalo. UMI No. 83-26981</li>
<li>Luchtenveld R. (2004) – <em>Dutch family law proposal on administrative divorce and continued parenting, no. 29676</em>, Dutch House of Commons.</li>
<li>Luepnitz, D.A. (1982) <em>Child custody: A study of families after divorce</em>, Lexington, M.A.: Lexington Books.</li>
<li>Luepnitz, D.A. (1986) <em>A comparison of maternal, paternal, and joint custody: Understanding the varieties of post-divorce family life</em>, Journal of Divorce, 9(3):1-12.</li>
<li>Morgan, R. (2006) <em>Teachers have lost courage to tackle bad behaviour</em>, UK Times, By Richard Ford, Home Correspondent, August 21, 2006, <a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-2321556,00.html">http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-2321556,00.html</a></li>
<li>Noonan, L.P. (1984) <em>Effects of long-term conflict on personality functioning of children of divorce</em>, Doctoral thesis, The Wright Institute Graduate School of Psychology, Berkeley. UMI No. 84- 17931.</li>
<li>Nunan, S.A. (1980) <em>Joint custody versus single custody effects on child development</em>, Doctoral thesis, California School of Professional Psychology, Berkeley, UMI No. 81-10142.</li>
<li>O&#8217;Neill, R. (2002), <em>Experiments in Living: The Fatherless Family, A Meta-analytic study</em>, Civitas, Institute for the Study of Civil Society, September 2002 <a href="http://www.civitas.org.uk/pdf/Experiments.pdf">http://www.civitas.org.uk/pdf/Experiments.pdf</a></li>
<li>Öberg, Gunnar; Öberg, Bente (1985) <em>Den delade familjen : samtal med 60 familjer om gemensam vårdnad</em>, Stockholm University, Pedagogiska institutionen, Forskningsrapport nr 26</li>
<li>Öberg, B., Öberg, G. (1985) <em>Den delade familjen</em>, Stockholm: Pedagogiska institutionen, Stockholms universitet, Forskningsrapport nr 26.</li>
<li>Öberg, B., Öberg, G. (1987) <em>Skiljas &#8211; men inte från barnen</em>, Stockholm: Natur och Kultur.</li>
<li>Öberg, B., Öberg, G. (1992) <em>Pappa, se mig! Om förnekade barn och maktlösa fäder</em>. Stockholm: Förlagshuset Gothia. Utgiven i samarbete med Rädda Barnen.</li>
<li>Olde Loohuis, J. (2009) <em>Fatherhood matters! Exploratory report on the status of Dutch separated fathers (Vaderschap doet ertoe! Wat is de positie van gescheiden vaders?</em> Groningen, Netherlands: Dutch Graduate Doctoral Study, State University of Groningen in coöperation with Enova Consultancy on Emancipation Issues in the Province of Drenthe <a href="http://www.enova-ebd.nl/cms/software/showfile.php?action=download&amp;file_id=410&amp;token=49684" target="_blank">http://www.enova-ebd.nl/cms/software/showfile.php?action=download&amp;file_id=410&amp;token=49684</a></li>
<li>Pojman, E. (1982) <em>Emotional adjustment of boys in sole custody and joint custody compared with adjustment of boys in happy and unhappy marriages</em>. Los Angeles: California Graduate Institute, Doctoral dissertation.</li>
<li>Ringbäck Weitoft, G., Hjern, A., Haglund, B., Rosén, M. (2003), <em>Mortality, severe morbidity, and injury in children living with single parents in Sweden: a population-based study</em>, The Lancet, Elsevier, Volume 361, Number 9354, 25, January 2003</li>
<li>Rudolph, J. (2007) <em>Du bist mein Kind; Die Cochemer Praxis, Wege zu einem menschlicheren Familienrecht (You are my child; The Cochem practise, inroads to a more human family law)</em>, Berlin, 2007</li>
<li>Shiller, V. (1984) <em>Joint and Maternal Custody: The outcome for boys aged 6-11 and their parents</em>, Doctoral thesis, University of Delaware. UMI No. 85-11219.</li>
<li>Shiller, V. (1986 a) <em>Loyalty conflicts and family relationships in latency age boys: A comparison of joint and maternal custody</em>, Journal of Divorce 9:17-38.</li>
<li>Shiller, V. (1986 b) <em>Joint versus maternal custody for families with latency age boys: Parent characteristics and child adjustment</em>, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 56:486-489.</li>
<li>Spruijt, E. (2007), <em>Scheidingskinderen; Overzicht van recent sociaal-wetenschappelijk onderzoek naar de gevolgen van ouderlijke scheiding voor kinderen en jongeren (Children of divorce; Review of recent social research into the effects of parental separation for children and adolescents</em>, Netherlands, SWP, April 2007</li>
<li>Steinman, S. (1981) <em>The experience of children in a joint-custody arrangement</em>, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 51:403-414.</li>
<li>Tornstam, L. (1996, 2000) <em>Dwelling Choices for the Children of Separated Parents (Separationsbarns boende)</em>, Nordisk Socialt Arbeid, 1996(3):193-203, Translation by Dr. Mark Wood, Men&#8217;s Rights Agency, <a href="http://www.mensrights.com.au/dwelling.pdf"> http://www.mensrights.com.au/dwelling.pdf</a></li>
<li>Tromp, P.A.N. (2006), <em>Present status of shared parenting legislation in Europe</em>, Father Knowledge Centre Europe, Netherlands, June 2006</li>
<li>Vårdnadstvistutredningen: <em>Vårdnad boende umgänge</em> (SOU 1995:79).</li>
<li>Whiston, R. (2009a) <em>Children Act 1989: The elimination of shared parenting,</em> Presentation held at the International Conference on Family and Equality “Justice and Father’s &amp; Men’s Dignity” on 2-4 January 2009 in Drama, Greece</li>
<li>Whiston, R. (2009b) <em>Law is parochial,</em> Presentation held at the International Conference on Family and Equality “Justice and Father’s &amp; Men’s Dignity” on 2-4 January 2009 in Drama, Greece.</li>
<li>Wolchik, S.A., Braver, S.L., &amp; Sandler, I.N. (1985<em>). Maternal versus joint custody: Children&#8217;s postseparation experiences and adjustment</em>. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 14, 5-10.</li>
<li>Zohrab, P.D. (2009) <em>The Move to Female Subjectivity as the Standard for Law and Policy</em>, Presentation held at the International Conference on Family and Equality “Justice and Father’s &amp; Men’s Dignity” on 2-4 January 2009 in Drama, Greece.</li>
</ul>
<p>________________________________</p>
<p><em>Peter Tromp MSc, Child and educational psychologist, Father Knowledge Centre Europe, Netherlands</em><br />
________________________________</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;">Appendix A : More detailed summary of the family law reform by the new Dutch family law on continued parenting after separation (no. 30145)</span></strong></p>
<p>This new Dutch family law was passed in the Dutch House of Commons in June 2006, while as recently as on 25 November 2008 the law was also passed by the Dutch Senate. It has gone into effect in the Dutch family courts on April 1, 2009. Two separate code books of the Dutch civil law are included in its law reform provisions:</p>
<p><span style="font-size:9pt;">a. CC = Civil Code (In Dutch :: Burgerlijk Wetboek: BW in Dutch short)</span><br />
<span style="font-size:9pt;">b. Jp = Statutes on Civil Justice Proceedings (In Dutch :: Wetboek van Burgerlijke Rechtsvordering: Rv in Dutch short)</span></p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">1. Reforms on the issue of Parental Authority <em>(Title 14 CC)</em></span></strong></p>
<p>1.1 Parental authority in this new law now also comprises the duty to <span style="text-decoration:underline;">stimulate and promote the development of ties and attachments between the child(ren) with the other parent <em>(Art.247 Clause 3 CC).</em></span></p>
<p>1.2 The child is entitled to <span style="text-decoration:underline;">equal care and education from both parents</span> <em>(Art.247 Clause 4 and 5, CC)</em>.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">2. Reforms on the issue of taking away parental authority <em>(Art. 251a CC)</em>.</span></strong></p>
<p><span style="font-size:12pt;">The judge can however also take away parental authority of one of the parents if and when:</span></p>
<p>2.1 the child “feels trapped or is in possible danger of being trapped or lost between both parents” <em>(Clause 1 sub a)</em>,</p>
<p>2.2 changing parental authority is considered necessary by the court in “<span style="text-decoration:underline;">the best interest of the child</span>” <em>(Clause 1 sub b)</em>,</p>
<p>2.3 the child <span style="text-decoration:underline;">wants that itself</span> (also when the child is younger than 12 years) <a name="_ftnref7" href="#_ftn7"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[7]</span></span></a> <em>(Clause 4)</em>.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">3 Reforms on the issue of making up a parenting plan <em>(Art. 815 Clause 2 and 3 Jp)</em></span></strong></p>
<p>3.1 The parents have to make up a written parenting plan with agreements on:</p>
<ul>
<li>the division in the <em><span style="text-decoration:underline;">care- and parenting tasks</span></em>,</li>
<li>how to <em><span style="text-decoration:underline;">inform and consult</span></em> each other on parenting the children,</li>
<li>the <em><span style="text-decoration:underline;">costs</span></em> of caring and parenting the children.</li>
</ul>
<p>3.2 When the parents cannot agree on a parenting plan:</p>
<ul>
<li> the judge is at the discretion of sending them to a <em><span style="text-decoration:underline;">mediator</span> (Art. 818 Clause 2 Jp)</em>,</li>
<li><em><span style="text-decoration:underline;">the parents can however also choose to continue (adversarial) proceedings</span></em> on (co-)parenting, the division of parenting tasks and the costs of care and parenting <em>(Art. 815 Clause 6 Jp)</em>.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">4 Reforms on the issue of disagreement between the parents on issues of joint legal custody <em>(Art. 253a CC)</em> the court or judge can be requested to:</span></strong></p>
<p>4.1 impose a <span style="text-decoration:underline;">taskdivision</span> regarding care and parenting between the parents <em>(Clause 2 sub a)</em>,</p>
<p>4.2 impose an <span style="text-decoration:underline;">information- and consultation arrangement</span> <em>(Clause 2 sub c)</em>,</p>
<p>4.3 impose a <span style="text-decoration:underline;">contact exclusion order</span> to one of the parents <em>(Clause 2 sub a)</em>,</p>
<p>4.4 impose a <span style="text-decoration:underline;">main residency order</span> for the child <em>(Clause 2 sub b)</em>,</p>
<p>4.5 authorise the police and justice authorities to reinforce the courts parenting arrangements by the <span style="text-decoration:underline;">strong arm of the law</span> <em>(Clause 5 en art.812 Clause 2 Jp)</em>,</p>
<p>4.6 Differences between the parents on parenting issues can be brought to the court unilaterally by either of the parties representative lawyers only but have to be completed in the court within a strict timetable of 6 weeks <em>(Clause 6)</em>.</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;">5 Reform on the issue of denial of the right of care for the children <em>(art. 253a Clause 4 juncto art. 377a Clause 3 sub d CC)</em></span></strong></p>
<p>The court or judge can <em><span style="text-decoration:underline;">deny a parent the right to care for a child</span></em> when the care provided by the parent is incompatible with crucial best interests of the child.</p>
<p>________________________________</p>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;">Footnotes</span></strong></p>
<div>
<hr size="1" /></div>
<div id="ftn1">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin:0;"><a name="_ftn1" href="#_ftnref1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size:10pt;">[1]</span></span></span></a> Contactdetails Peter Tromp MSc; Father Knowledge Centre Europe; Jacob Cabeliaustraat 17; 3554 VH Utrecht; Netherlands; T. 0031 – 30 – 238 3636; Skype: Peterpan17; E. <a href="mailto:vaderkenniscentrum@gmail.com">vaderkenniscentrum@gmail.com</a>; I. <a href="http://fkce.wordpress.com/">http://fkce.wordpress.com</a> and <a href="http://vaderkenniscentrum.blogspot.com/">http://vaderkenniscentrum.blogspot.com</a></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn2">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin:0;"><a name="_ftn2" href="#_ftnref2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size:10pt;">[2]</span></span></span></a> Because children are the future of any society, I will take in my presentation the perspective of the children involved in divorce in documenting some of the effects of divorce. This does not mean however that divorces do not also have profound effects on the quality of life of the divorcing adults involved. They do. But &#8211; although in most of the psychological literature divorce is acknowledged as one of the main life course events and possible trauma’s &#8211; not much research is readily available yet on the exact traumatising effects of parental alienation and exclusion resulting from the destructive sole care and residence practises of Western family law systems and family court practises on the divorcing adult parents. One recent Dutch study documented however that divorced parents count for 48% more of company’s and society’s sick leave costs in the workspace (Kunst a.o., 2007). Also a relationship between divorce and suicide has been documented. This indicates that the costs of divorce for society and companies are still far from being documented extensively and can be expected to be tremendous, both for children and the adults involved.</p>
</div>
<div id="ftn3">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin:0;"><a name="_ftn3" href="#_ftnref3"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size:10pt;">[3]</span></span></span></a> Simultaneous presentation held at the Drama conference by Robert Whiston FRSA, 2009, Children Act 1989: The elimination of shared parenting.</p>
</div>
<div id="ftn4">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin:0;"><a name="_ftn4" href="#_ftnref4"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size:10pt;">[4]</span></span></span></a> It is not within the scope of this presentation to further elaborate on the parochial, subjective and irrational reasons why Western family law systems and family court practises instead still opt for single parent mother-only custody, care and residency as the preferred default and dominant presumption for post-divorce parenting arrangements. Instead I refer to the excellent presentations that were simultaneously held on this subject at the Drama conference by Robert Whiston FRSA (“Law is parochial”) and Peter D. Zohrab LLB, BA, BA(Hons), („The Move to Female Subjectivity as the Standard for Law and Policy“), to further elaborate on the critical issue of why subjective, irrational and parochial choices at present are leading in Western family law systems and family justice practises.</p>
</div>
<div id="ftn5">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin:0;"><a name="_ftn5" href="#_ftnref5"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size:10pt;">[5]</span></span></span></a> The Luchtenveld law proposals embraced post-separation equal parenting on principle and were originally designed to support joint physical custody, residency and care, but in the end they did so only on the principle of it without also factually sufficiently implementing it in the practice of the law, i.e. they ended up being a watered down version of joint physical custody, leaving courts free to continue the practice of sole custody orders. The Luchtenveld proposals ended up as mere window-dressing which is a very usual practice within Dutch “Polderpolitics” (swamp-politics): that is Dutch politics often say to solve a matter by intend while in the fact and practice of the matter they then willingly do not by compromising the law proposals and making them inconsistent. As such the Luchtenveld proposals were no exception to that rule and were in their end-version – after being window-dressed in the Dutch House of Commons &#8211; considered insufficient and inadequate for implementing real shared parenting.</p>
</div>
<div id="ftn6">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin:0;"><a name="_ftn6" href="#_ftnref6"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size:10pt;">[6]</span></span></span></a> This offers a fine example of what is discussed by Robert Whiston FRSA in his simultaneous presentation at the Drama-conference that “Law is parochial”. Dutch lawyers are over represented in the Dutch senate and voted this law proposal down because of its introduction of the possibility of an administrative divorce that contradicted their and their lawyer firms and institutions professional interests in obligatory lawyer representation in court-divorce proceedings.</p>
</div>
<div id="ftn7">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin:0;"><a name="_ftn7" href="#_ftnref7"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size:10pt;">[7]</span></span></span></a> ‘As to the recent developments in family law and family courts in Europe in which divorce children are now being forced to speak out on post-divorce parenting arrangements by the judges in the family courts (the child being ‘heard’ in the Family Courts)’ the Father Knowledge Centre Europe emphasizes the importance of honouring the explicitly formulated rights of children to have family life and parenting and care from both their parents as these are formulated in the UN children&#8217;s rights convention and in the European Convention for Human Rights (ECHR) and issues warning for the dangers of introducing and institutionalising systemic forms of child abuse when state agencies and family courts for their own legitimacy reasons further continue on the path of explicitly and deliberately bringing children into the conflict of continued adversarial divorce and separation proceedings and single parent custody and care practises and are thus bringing children into a position in which they are solicited into publicly speaking out against either one of their parents in favour of the other parent.<br />
Not only do such family law provisions and family court practices involve children directly in divorce and separation conflicts by forcing them to speak out against either one of their parents, but by doing so they are also exposing the children involved to the immediate risk of emotional and physical abuse by soliciting social, psychological and physical pressure from the side of the parent under whose care they are (temporarily) placed by the court, to choose for her or him and against the other parent.<br />
What is demanded from children, when solicited by adversarial family court practises and family law provisions into publicly speaking out in favour or against one or the other of its parents for court and family law legitimacy reasons, is threatening the child’s or children&#8217;s longer term identity and depriving them of half of their identity by forcing children into expressing life-choices they are not naturally inclined to make and of which they cannot yet oversee the long lasting consequences when being made. Further forwarding this new course of action of directly involving children in the divorce and separation conflict by family law provisions and family court practises for solving their own legitimacy reasons, therefore creates severe risks for the identity and welfare of the children involved on the long run and well into their adult lives.</p>
</div>
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		<title>After divorce, kids need both parents (Arndt, 2003)</title>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 29 Aug 2003 06:38:56 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Father Knowledge Centre</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Australia]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Family Court]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Family Court of Australia]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Father custody]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Source: Australia &#8211; The Age &#8211; Bettina Arndt &#8211; Staff columnist &#8211; August 29, 2003 Children are distressed by divorce. Contact with both parents should start immediately after separation, writes Bettina Arndt. By Bettina Arndt Constant exposure to the antics of the small group of seriously warring parents who end up in the Family Court&#160;&#8230; <a href="http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/2003/08/29/4/">Read&#160;more</a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=sharedparenting.wordpress.com&amp;blog=1566479&amp;post=47&amp;subd=sharedparenting&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Source: Australia &#8211; <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20031011041727/http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/08/28/1062050603218.html" target="_blank">The Age</a> &#8211; Bettina Arndt &#8211; Staff columnist &#8211; August 29, 2003</em></p>
<p><strong>Children are distressed by divorce. Contact with both parents should start immediately after separation, writes Bettina Arndt.</strong></p>
<p><strong>By Bettina Arndt</strong></p>
<p>Constant exposure to the antics of the small group of seriously warring parents who end up in the Family Court has meant that judges, lawyers and mediators often show considerable resistance to more enlightened views of post-divorce parenting.</p>
<p>Take the issue of contact with very young children affected by divorce. Research by the Australian Institute of Family Studies shows that only 38 per cent of children up to two years old living with single mothers stay overnight with their fathers, compared to 60 per cent of children aged 3 to 4.</p>
<p>The assumption made by the court and often replicated in advice given by lawyers, counsellors and mediators is that such young children have only one &#8220;psychological&#8221; parent, and that overnight contact with the father can provide anxiety by separating the child from the psychological parent. But this assumption is now being challenged.</p>
<p>The notion of an exclusive attachment to the primary parent is based on an outdated view of parent-child relationships, says University of Western Sydney law professor Tom Altobelli, quoting recent research showing infants can form multiple attachments that contribute to their sense of security.</p>
<p>The researchers quoted by Altobelli conclude that infants and toddlers should have multiple contacts each week with both parents to minimise separation anxiety and maintain continuity in the child&#8217;s attachments.</p>
<p>Children become stressed by separations from either parent that last more than three or four days, say the researchers, and blanket restrictions on overnight contact for these young children are &#8220;unnecessarily restrictive&#8221;, given the importance of evening and overnight periods as opportunities for social interaction and nurturing.</p>
<p>Although there is some disagreement about the appropriate frequency of overnight contact for these infants, the researchers agree that even the youngest children can tolerate separation of a few days from the primary caregiver when parents are communicating well.</p>
<p>The great irony is that as family law experts quibble over how much contact fathers should be allowed to have with their young children, these children will not be cared for exclusively by their mothers.</p>
<p>These days, many such infants and toddlers will spend long periods cared for by unfamiliar child-care workers, and will often be farmed out to relatives, friends or mum&#8217;s boyfriend, even for overnight stays.</p>
<p>Unrationed care is permitted by one and all &#8211; with rigid controls only on the child&#8217;s actual father.</p>
<p>But the chances of shifting attitudes in the Family Court on such matters seem slim. A better strategy is to encourage couples to rethink their own approach to post-divorce parenting.</p>
<p>Parents should be encouraged to start a different conversation &#8211; without ever going near the court &#8211; a conversation that might sometimes lead to shared custody or at least children maintaining close relationships with not only their fathers but other key people such as grandparents.</p>
<p>Instead of writing laws trying to change the way the court handles these issues, it may be better to introduce statutory orders, as has been done in some American states, requiring that separating parents ensure that contact occurs from the start of separation, with the prescribed amount varying with the age of the child.</p>
<p>Such &#8220;early intervention strategies&#8221; should also include mandatory mediation on parenting issues for all separating parents. To get in early, this could be set up through Centrelink and the Child Support Agency, the two organisations in contact with most parents very soon after separation.</p>
<p>Financial inducements could be given to ensure participation, similar to the participation requirements that are now part of our social welfare system.</p>
<p>At present, when families break up, dad often disappears from the scene and it is often months or even years before contact with the children is resumed. The result is distressed children, particularly young children, miss out on the comfort of attachments vital to their sense of security at this difficult time.</p>
<p>We have to find a better way.</p>
<p><em>Bettina Arndt is a staff columnist.</em></p>
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		<title>Child Adjustment in Joint Custody Versus Sole Custody Arrangements: A Meta Analytic Review (Bauserman, 2002)</title>
		<link>http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/2002/03/24/5/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sun, 24 Mar 2002 13:08:20 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Father Knowledge Centre</dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[APA Press release: Children likely to be better adjusted in joint vs sole custody arrangements in most cases, according to review of research Living Situation Not As Influential As Time Spent With Parent American Psychological Association – Press release &#8211; Date: March 24, 2002 Contact: Pam Willenz Public Affairs Office (202) 336-5707 WASHINGTON &#8211; Children&#160;&#8230; <a href="http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/2002/03/24/5/">Read&#160;more</a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=sharedparenting.wordpress.com&amp;blog=1566479&amp;post=52&amp;subd=sharedparenting&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12pt;"><em>APA Press release:</em></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Children likely to be better adjusted in joint vs sole custody arrangements in most cases, according to review of research</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong> </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Living Situation Not As Influential As Time Spent With Parent</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">American Psychological Association – <a href="http://www.apa.org/releases/custody2.html" target="_blank">Press release</a> &#8211; Date: March 24, 2002<br />
Contact: <a href="mailto:pwillenz@apa.org">Pam Willenz</a> Public Affairs Office (202) 336-5707</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>WASHINGTON &#8211; Children from divorced families who either live with both parents at different times or spend certain amounts of time with each parent are better adjusted in most cases than children who live and interact with just one parent, according to new research on custody arrangements and children&#8217;s adjustment. </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Psychologist Robert Bauserman, Ph.D., of AIDS Administration/Department of Health and Mental Hygiene in Baltimore, Maryland conducted a meta-analysis of 33 studies between 1982 to 1999 that examined 1,846 sole-custody and 814 joint-custody children. The studies compared child adjustment in joint physical or joint legal custody with sole-custody settings and 251 intact families. Joint custody was defined as either physical custody &#8211; where a child spends equal or substantial amounts of time with both parents or shared legal custody &#8211; where a child lives with primarily one parent but both parents are involved in all aspects of the child&#8217;s life. This article will appear in the March issue of the <em>Journal of Family Psychology</em>, published by the American Psychological Association (APA).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Children in joint custody arrangements had less behavior and emotional problems, had higher self-esteem, better family relations and school performance than children in sole custody arrangements. And these children were as well-adjusted as intact family children on the same measures, said Bauserman, &#8220;probably because joint custody provides the child with an opportunity to have ongoing contact with both parents.&#8221;</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">These findings indicate that children do not actually need to be in a joint <em>physical</em> custody to show better adjustment but just need to spend substantial time with both parents, especially with their fathers, said Bauserman. Also, joint custody couples reported less conflict, possibly because both parents could participate in their children&#8217;s lives equally and not spend the time arguing over childcare decisions. Unfortunately a perception exists that joint custody is more harmful because it exposes children to ongoing parental conflict. In fact, the studies in this review found that sole-custody parents reported higher levels of conflict.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">It is important to recognize that the results do not support joint custody in all situations. When one parent is abusive or neglectful or has a serious mental or physical health problem, sole-custody with the other parent would clearly be preferable, said Bauserman. The judges, lawyers, social workers, psychologists and other professionals involved in divorce counseling and litigation should be aware of these findings to make informed decisions of what environment is best for a child in a custody situation.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Furthermore, to address the question of how much the parents&#8217; emotional health compared with the custody arrangement influenced the children&#8217;s adjustment, Bauserman explained that custody arrangement seemed to have more influence. By statistically controlling for past parental conflict (which indicates parental maladjustment), the joint custody children still were significantly better adjusted. This result was also found in other studies cited in Bauserman&#8217;s review. More primary research is needed, said Bauserman, &#8220;on the past and current adjustment of joint custody and sole custody parents before this question can be completely answered.&#8221;</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong> </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Article:</strong> &#8220;Child Adjustment in Joint-Custody Versus Sole-Custody Arrangements: A Meta-Analytic Review,&#8221; Robert Bauserman, Ph.D., AIDS Administration/Department of Health and Mental Hygiene; <em>Journal of Family Psychology</em>, Vol 16, No. 1.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Full text of the article </strong>available from the APA Public Affairs Office or at <a href="http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/fam16191.pdf">http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/fam16191.pdf</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="mailto:bausermanr@dhmh.state.md.us">Robert Bauserman, PhD</a> can be reached by telephone at 410-767-4322</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>The American Psychological Association (APA), in Washington, DC, is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States and is the world&#8217;s largest association of psychologists. APA&#8217;s membership includes more than 155,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. Through its divisions in 53 subfields of psychology and affiliations with 60 state, territorial and Canadian provincial associations, APA works to advance psychology as a science, as a profession and as a means of promoting human welfare.</em></p>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;">
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<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.apa.org/about/copyright.html">© 2007 American Psychological Association</a></p>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;">
<hr size="2" /></div>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12pt;"><em>APA Monitor:</em></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Joint custody might be best option for children of divorce, study finds </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>American Psychological Association &#8211; <a href="http://www.apa.org/monitor/jun02/custody.html" target="_blank">APA &#8211; Monitor</a> &#8211; Volume 33, No. 6 June 2002</em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Trekking from Mom&#8217;s home during the week to Dad&#8217;s on the weekend may seem like a hassle for some children of divorced parents, but it just might be best for them in the long run, concludes a meta-analysis, published in the March <em>Journal of Family Psychology</em> (Vol. 16, No. 1).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">The study finds that children from divorced families are better adjusted when they live with both parents at different homes or spend significant time with both parents compared with children who interact with only one parent.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Robert Bauserman, PhD, of the Baltimore Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, reviewed 33 studies that examined 1,846 sole-custody and 814 joint-custody children. Both groups of children were compared with a sample of 251 kids in intact families. Bauserman found that children in joint-custody arrangements had fewer behavioral and emotional problems, higher self-esteem and better family relationships and school performance compared with those in sole-custody situations. And he found no significant difference in adjustment among children in shared custody and those living in intact family situations. Joint-custody children probably fare better, according to Bauserman, because they have ongoing contact with both parents.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">The contact with both parents, he argues, is the key ingredient in kids&#8217; adjustment, he said. The findings indicate that children don&#8217;t necessarily need to be in joint physical custody to show better adjustment, they just need to spend substantial time with both parents.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Also, according to the research, couples with joint-custody agreements tend to experience less conflict&#8211;which speaks to the concern that joint custody is harmful to kids because it exposes them to ongoing parental strife. In fact, Bauserman notes, &#8220;it was the sole-custody parents who reported higher levels of current conflict.&#8221; He found that some research shows that joint custody may actually reduce parental conflict over time.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Obviously, joint custody isn&#8217;t always preferable to sole custody. When one parent is abusive, neglectful or has serious mental health problems or trouble adjusting after divorce, sole custody could be the best option for the children, Bauserman says.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">&#8211;J. DAW</p>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;">
<hr size="2" /></div>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12pt;"><em>The Meta-Analytic Review itself as published in the APA Journal of Family Psychology:</em></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><br />
CUSTODY AND CHILD ADJUSTMENT &#8211; BAUSERMAN</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Child Adjustment in Joint-Custody Versus Sole-Custody Arrangements: A Meta-Analytic Review</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em><a href="http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/fam16191.pdf" target="_blank">American Psychological Association APA, Journal of Family Psychology</a>, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2002</em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:14pt;">Robert Bauserman (*)</span><br />
AIDS Administration/Department of Health and Mental Hygiene</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>Download the full text of the article :: <a title="Pdf-file" href="http://fkce.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/bauserman-apa-fam16191.pdf">Pdf-file</a></em><span style="font-size:12pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>The author meta-analyzed 33 studies comparing child adjustment in joint physical or joint legal custody with sole-custody settings, including comparisons with paternal custody and intact families where possible. </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Children in joint physical or legal custody were better adjusted than children in sole-custody settings, but no different from those in intact families. More positive adjustment of joint-custody children held for separate comparisons of general adjustment, family relationships, self-esteem, emotional and behavioral adjustment, and divorce-specific adjustment. </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Joint-custody parents reported less current and past conflict than did sole-custody parents, but this did not explain the better adjustment of joint-custody children. </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>The results are consistent with the hypothesis that joint custody can be advantageous for children in some cases, possibly by facilitating ongoing positive involvement with both parents.</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Research evidence has clearly demonstrated that, on average, children from divorced families are not as well adjusted as those in intact families, although this relative disadvantage does not necessarily imply clinical levels of maladjustment (Amato &amp; Keith, 1991b; Guidubaldi &amp; Perry, 1985). Joint custody, an arrangement that involves shared legal and/or physical custody of children following divorce of their parents, has increased in popularity as an option in divorce since the 1970s, with many states now having either a preference or presumption for joint legal custody (Bender, 1994). An ongoing debate between proponents and opponents of joint custody has continued since the 1970s as well, with different researchers and authors expressing both strong opposition (e.g., Goldstein, Freud, &amp; Solnit, 1973; Kuehl, 1989) and strong support (e.g., Bender, 1994; Roman &amp; Haddad, 1978). Arguments in favor of joint custody have often focused on benefits for the child of maintaining relationships with both parents. In contrast, opponents have argued that joint custody disrupts needed stability in a child’s life and can lead to harm by exposing children to ongoing parental conflict.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">A variety of theoretical perspectives have been proposed to explain the links between divorce and child adjustment (Hetherington, Bridges, &amp; Insabella, 1998): individual characteristics of the child that might increase vulnerability to maladjustment; the change in family composition and the possible negative effects of father absence in the typical maternal custody situation; the increased economic stress and problems in shifting from a two-parent to a one-parent household; effects of parental distress on the child; and changes in family processes such as conflict and expression of emotion. Buchanan, Maccoby, and Dornbusch (1996) classified factors affecting children’s postdivorce adjustment into three categories: loss of a parent, interparental conflict, and diminished parenting (in which the quality of parenting from the custodial parent deteriorates, typically during the first 2 years after divorce). In an analysis of several large-scale national samples, McLanahan (1999) found that father absence due to divorce is associated with less school achievement for both boys and girls, more labor market detachment (i.e., unemployment) for boys, and early childbearing for girls. The impact of father absence seemed to be mediated by several variables, including loss of parental resources (less involvement and supervision), loss of financial resources, and loss of community resources (the broader network of social involvement, interaction, and support obtained from each parent). In a meta-analysis of 63 studies of nonresident fathers’ role in children’s well-being, Amato and Gilbreth (1999) found that authoritative parenting and feelings of closeness between father and child related to well-being. In addition to child support payments, authoritative parenting by the father was the most consistent predictor of outcomes including school achievement, externalizing (behavioral) problems, and internalizing (emotional) problems.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Notably, joint custody (and joint physical custody in particular) is relevant to many of the issues raised by Buchanan et al. (1996), Amato and Gilbreth (1999), Hetherington et al. (1998), and McLanahan (1999). For example, ongoing and frequent access to both parents may mitigate potential effects of parental absence as seen in sole-custody households, and access to the households and resources of both parents may reduce economic stress and disadvantage for the child. On the other hand, as critics of joint custody have noted, close ongoing contact with both parents might expose the child to ongoing conflict. Thus, research on custody and adjustment needs to examine not just differences in adjustment across different custodial settings, but also how the factors identified here may relate to any adjustment differences found. It is important to recognize that such comparisons cannot establish a causal role for joint versus sole custody in child adjustment, because such research is necessarily relational rather than experimental in nature. However, it would still be possible to identify which custody type (if any) is associated with better adjustment in different areas, and what variables appear to moderate any relationship found.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">During the past 20 years, an increasing body of research evidence on the adjustment of children in both types of custody settings has developed, and some reviewers have specifically compared child adjustment in joint- and solecustody settings (e.g., Johnston, 1995; Twaite &amp; Luchow, 1996). These reviewers presented varying conclusions: some argued that the research literature unequivocally supports joint custody (Bender, 1994); others argued that variables such as parental conflict are more important than custodial arrangement in determining child outcomes (Twaite &amp; Luchow, 1996) and that joint custody is likely to be inappropriate in high-conflict situations (Johnston, 1995). Still others presented mixed findings in which no single custody arrangement can be assumed to be preferable (Kelly, 1993). These authors conducted traditional narrative literature reviews that attempt to organize and make sense of a literature by reporting on the findings of a number of relevant studies, noting significant and nonsignificant findings, and forming holistic impressions of the literature reviewed. However, such reviews are subject to a number of potential problems: selective citation of studies; reporting results consistent with the reviewer’s perspective, combined with minimization or nonreporting of inconsistent results; focusing on statistical significance rather than on the magnitude of the relationship between variables; and failure to examine study characteristics as moderators of results (Johnson, 1989; Rosenthal, 1984).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">In this review, a meta-analysis of child adjustment in sole- and joint-custody situations was conducted in order to avoid some of the problems of traditional literature reviews and to integrate as much of the relevant literature as possible. Meta-analytic reviews integrate research literature in a more systematic and quantitative fashion than traditional narrative reviews (Rosenthal, 1984) by converting different statistical results into a common metric of effect size such as Cohen’s (1988) <em>d </em>and systematically examining the effect of various study qualities on the magnitude of the effect.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">The goal of this review was to locate and metaanalytically integrate reports of child adjustment that directly compare children in joint-custody (legal and/or physical) and in sole-custody settings following divorce. Based on the arguments advanced in favor of joint custody (e.g., Bender, 1994), the literature demonstrating adjustment difficulties for children in sole-custody families when compared to children in intact families (e.g., Amato &amp; Keith, 1991b; Guidubaldi &amp; Perry, 1985), and the relevance of ongoing relationships with both parents to theoretical perspectives on child adjustment in divorce (e.g., Hetherington et al., 1998), it was hypothesized that on average children in joint-custody arrangements would demonstrate better adjustment than children in sole-custody arrangements. Although the suggested hypothesis (and subsequent hypotheses) is directional, all statistical tests were based on appropriately conservative two-tailed probabilities. As noted previously, joint custody cannot be proven to be the causal factor in any such difference. However, such an outcome would be consistent with suggestions that, by providing for an ongoing, close relationship with both parents in a way not possible in sole-custody arrangements that emphasize limited visitation with the noncustodial parents, joint custody may work to overcome the difficulties for the child potentially caused by the parental absence, economic stress, socioeconomic disadvantage, and changes in family processes that might accompany divorce. Exposure to parental conflict may potentially be greater in a joint-custody setting than in a sole-custody setting, and consequently offset some of these possible benefits, but this is a concern that can be examined empirically.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Because most sole-custody arrangements are maternal rather than paternal custody, the primary focus of the review was comparison of joint-custody samples with primarily or exclusively sole maternal custody samples. In addition, some studies also included separate paternal custody groups or intact family groups. These groups were used to conduct secondary meta-analyses comparing paternal custody and joint-custody children, and intact-family and joint-custody children. Based on the reasoning that joint custody is more beneficial than harmful because it provides a higher degree of ongoing support and resources from both parents than other custody arrangements, it was hypothesized that jointcustody children would be relatively better adjusted than paternal custody children. It was further hypothesized that joint-custody and intact-family children would be relatively equal in level of adjustment because both groups are maintaining ongoing relationships involving frequent contact with both parents.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">A secondary goal of the current review was to examine how theoretically relevant characteristics of participant populations and of studies might moderate the relationship between custody arrangements and outcomes. For example, some critics of joint custody have expressed concern that this arrangement will expose children to ongoing parental conflict, resulting in more stress and adjustment problems. Thus, wherever possible joint-custody and sole-custody groups were compared on levels of conflict between parents either now or in the past, and conflict level was examined as a moderator of adjustment differences. Although interparental conflict might reduce potential benefits, jointcustody parents may experience lower levels of conflict at the time of divorce than sole-custody parents, which allows them to enter into joint-custody arrangements to begin with. The potential confounding role of conflict is also considered.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Other researchers have claimed that children in solecustody arrangements are better adjusted when living with the same-sex than with the opposite-sex parent (e.g., Warshak, 1986), a variation of the family-composition perspective on the effects of divorce. Given that most sole-custody arrangements involve maternal custody, boys might therefore show more benefit than girls in a comparison of joint and maternal custody. Thus, one variable coded as a potential moderator was the proportion of boys in each study’s sole-custody and joint-custody groups. It was hypothesized that the benefits of ongoing involvement with both parents would be robust, such that better adjustment for jointcustody children would be found even when controlling for a variety of participant and study characteristics as potential moderators.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><br />
Method</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Sample of Studies</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Studies were located through (a) electronic databases, including PsycINFO, Sociofile, and <em>Dissertation Abstracts International</em>, and (b) reference lists of relevant studies. Both narrowly focused searches (with the term “joint custody”) and broader searches (combining the terms “custody” and “adjustment”) were performed. The electronic databases were searched from the earliest available dates through December 1998. <em>Dissertation Abstracts International </em>was searched in an effort to incorporate as many unpublished findings as possible. Contacts with researchers in the field identified an additional study, which has since been published (Gunnoe &amp; Braver, 2001).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">To be included in this review, a study had to include groups of children living in joint legal or physical custody arrangements and in maternal or sole-custody arrangements, and had to report the statistical outcome of some test comparing psychological or behavioural adjustment between the groups. Studies that reported only qualitative descriptions of different groups, or that reported the adjustment of a joint-custody group without a sole-custody comparison group (e.g., Steinman, 1981), were therefore excluded. Similarly, studies that included both sole- and joint-custody children, and some measure of adjustment, were excluded if they did not provide any information (statistics or <em>p </em>values) on direct comparisons of the sole- and joint-custody groups (e.g., Kline, Tschann, Johnston, &amp; Wallerstein, 1989).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Coding of Studies</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">For each study, the following information was coded: (a) statistics provided on adjustment for sole-custody and joint-custody children (and paternal custody and intact-family children, if included), including group sample sizes, means and standard deviations, <em>t </em>tests, <em>F </em>tests, correlations, and proportions; (b) the specific definition of joint custody used in the study (joint physical, joint legal, or undefined); (c) type of adjustment measure (described further below); (d) by whom the adjustment measure was completed; (e) ages of each group of children at the time of parental separation or divorce; (f) current ages (at time of study) of each group of children; (g) the proportion of boys in the joint-custody group and in the sole-custody group; (h) proportion of custodial mothers in the sole-custody group (usually 1.0, but less in some cases where authors did not report separate results for maternal and paternal sole-custody groups); (i) published versus unpublished status; (j) sex of first author, coded from the first name of the author; (k) sample source; (l) date of publication; (m) parental conflict in the past; and (n) parental conflict now.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Most studies included more than one codable measure of adjustment, which often represented conceptually different types of adjustment and were completed by different individuals. Effect sizes were calculated for each result, referred to here as <em>measurelevel </em>effect sizes. Although this procedure meant that not all effect sizes were independent of one another, it allowed separate metaanalyses on the basis of type of adjustment measure (e.g., selfesteem) and the individual (e.g., child or parent) who completed the measure. For each study with more than one measure-level effect size, all effect sizes were also averaged to obtain a single effect size, referred to here as <em>study-level </em>effect size (Rosenthal, 1984). Although this procedure meant that disparate measures might be averaged for some studies, it also meant that each effect size represented an independent study. This procedure allowed examination of study qualities, such as published versus unpublished status or sex of author, as potential moderators of effects. (The coding of some specific qualities is described in the following.) A total of 140 measure-level effect sizes were coded for the joint-custody and maternal custody comparisons.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">For eight of the studies that were eventually included, statistics were provided that allowed calculation of effect sizes for some of the measures used, but not for others for which comparisons were reported to be nonsignificant. Rather than selectively include measures from these studies, effect sizes for these measures were set equal to zero and included in the measure-level meta-analyses and in calculation of the study-level effect sizes. This procedure provides a conservative and unbiased way to include these measures that does not favor either custody arrangement. As a result, a total of nine effect sizes estimated to be zero were included.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Definition of Joint Custody</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The term <em>joint custody </em>can refer to either shared physical custody, with children spending equal or substantial amounts of time with both parents, or shared legal custody, with primary residence often remaining with one parent. Joint physical custody clearly implies ongoing close contact with both parents. However, joint legal custody implies shared decision making by the parents and ongoing, active involvement of the nonresidential parent in the child’s life, even if residential custody remains primarily with one parent. Rather than exclude one form or the other from the current review, studies based on either joint physical or joint legal custody were included; study definitions were coded as “joint physical” or “joint legal” so that comparisons on the basis of definition would be possible. In 64% of the studies (<em>n </em>= 21), joint custody was defined specifically on the basis of time spent with each parent. Typically this meant at least 25% of the child’s or adolescent’s time was spent with each parent; schedules could and did vary widely from subject to subject and study to study, but in all of these cases involved a substantial proportion of time actually spent living with each parent. In an additional 18% of studies (<em>n </em>= 6), joint custody was self-defined by parents or was left undefined in the report of the study. For 12% of the studies (<em>n </em>= 4), joint custody groups combined joint legal and joint physical custody. Two studies (Isaacs, Leon, &amp; Kline, 1987; Lerman, 1989) included separate joint physical custody and joint legal custody groups. However, there was only one sole-custody comparison group within each study, so comparisons of joint physical versus sole custody and joint legal versus sole custody were not independent within each study. In these two cases, measure-level and studylevel effect sizes were calculated based on sole-custody comparisons with both the joint physical and joint legal groups. Only the joint physical/sole-custody comparisons were used in later analyses of measure-level effect sizes. Study-level effect sizes were computed for sole-custody comparisons with both the joint physical and joint legal groups in each study, and study-level comparisons of adjustment in joint and sole custody were computed using both (a) joint physical/sole-custody comparisons only, and (b) joint physical and joint legal comparisons with sole custody. For custody definition, studies were dummy-coded with “1” for timebased joint physical custody, and “2” for joint legal custody or samples that left joint custody undefined or combined the two types.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Types of Adjustment Measures</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Because of the possibility that differences between sole and joint custody children might be greater on some dimensions of adjustment (e.g., family relations) than others (e.g., measures of general adjustment), measures were categorized into the following groups: general adjustment, emotional adjustment, behavioral adjustment, self-esteem, family relations, academic performance, and divorce-specific adjustment.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>General adjustment. </em>This category included results reported for broad-based measures of adjustment covering a range of behavioural and emotional problems, including the Child Symptom Checklist; the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach &amp; Edelbrock, 1983); the Personality Inventory for Children, Adjustment subscale (Wirt, Lachar, Klinedienst, &amp; Seat, 1984); the California Test of Personality (California Test Bureau, 1950); the Health Resources Inventory (Gesten, 1976); the Adaptive Behavior Inventory for Children (Mercer, 1979, ch. 15); the Louisville Behavior Checklist (Miller, 1977); and scales or items created by the authors included in the meta-analysis.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>Behavioral adjustment. </em>This category included measures specifically assessing behavioral problems, including the Conduct Disorder subscale of the Adolescent Multiphasic Personality Inventory (<em>MPI</em>; Duthie, 1985); the Behavior Problem Checklist (Quay &amp; Peterson, 1979); the Externalizing subscale of the CBCL (when scale scores for the CBCL were reported rather than total scores), the Externalizing subscale of the Youth Self-Report Inventory (Achenbach, 1991), and various author-created scales for rating behavioral problems.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>Emotional adjustment. </em>This category included measures intended to assess emotional symptoms and reactions, including the Neuroticism subscale of the Adolescent MPI; the Internalizing subscale from the CBCL; the Children’s Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1981); the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Inventory (Reynolds &amp; Richmond, 1985); the Children’s Social Desirability Questionnaire (Crandall, Crandall, &amp; Katkovsky, 1965); the Draw-A-Person Test (Koppitz, 1966); the Differential Emotions Scale (Boyle, 1984); the House–Tree–Person Test (Buck, 1977); Locus of Control (Nowicki &amp; Strickland, 1973); the Internalizing subscale of the Youth Self-Report Inventory; and various authorwritten items related to emotional problems and adjustment.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>Self-esteem. </em>This category included the California Attitude Survey; the Self-Esteem subscale of the Children’s Personality Questionnaire (R. Porter &amp; Cattell, 1968); the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1967); the Culture-Free Self- Esteem Inventory; the Inferred Self-Concept Scale (Hughes, 1984); the Perceived Competence Scale for Children (Harter, 1982); the Piers–Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale (Piers, 1984; Piers &amp; Harris, 1964); the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (Fitts, 1965); and author-written items or composites of selfesteem items.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>Family relations. </em>This category included the Child Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (Schaefer, 1965); items from the Cornell Parent Behavior Inventory (Devereaux, Bronfenbrenner, &amp; Suci, 1962); the Draw-A-Family Test (Isaacs et al., 1987); the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES; Olson, 1986); the Family Relations Test (Anthony &amp; Bene, 1957); the Kinetic Family Drawings Test (Burns &amp; Kaufman, 1970); the Kvebaek Family Sculpture Test (Cromwell, Fournier, &amp; Kvebaek, 1980); the Loyalty Conflict Assessment Test (Shiller, 1986); the Parental Acceptance and Rejection Questionnaire (Rohner, 1980); the Stepfamily Adjustment Scale (Crosbie-Burnett, 1991); and various author-created scales.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>Academic/scholastic. </em>This category included one measure specific to classroom behavior, the Classroom Adjustment Rating Scale (Lorion, 1975), and measures related to school performance or intelligence such as grade-point average, IQ, and school attendance.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>Divorce-specific. </em>This category included the Children’s Attitudes Toward Parental Separation Inventory (CAPSI; Berg, 1982); Children’s Beliefs about Parental Divorce (CBAPD; Kurdek &amp; Berg, 1987); the Structured Divorce Questionnaire (Kurdek &amp; Siesky, 1980); the Divorce Experiences Scale for Children (Wolchik, Braver, &amp; Sandler, 1985), and various author-written items specifically concerning adjustment to the divorce, such as parental ratings of whether the child was harmed by or benefited from the divorce, and positive versus negative experiences in the divorce.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Sample Source</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">There were five different types of sample sources identified. First were court and divorce records, in which researchers identified joint-custody families by examining court records of divorce and custody proceedings in specific jurisdictions. Second were convenience samples, in which researchers identified and recruited participants through such means as newspaper and media advertisements, word of mouth, and personal contacts. Third were school-based samples, in which participants were recruited within particular schools or school systems. Fourth were national samples (only one, Donnelly &amp; Finkelhor, 1992). And finally, clinical samples of families undergoing counseling or other mental health services related to the divorce (only two, Johnston, Kline, &amp; Tschann, 1989; Walker, 1985).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Conflict</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Samples were also coded for measures of current conflict between parents (conflict now) and past conflict between parents (conflict then). Past conflict typically involved assessments of conflict during the marriage or around the time of separation. Measures of current conflict were coded from 14 studies and included such measures as the Straus Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, 1979); the O’Leary–Porter Overt Hostility Scale (B. Porter &amp; O’Leary, 1980); Ahrons’s scales for various dimensions of parental conflict, communication, and support (Ahrons, 1979, 1981, 1983); and various author-created items or scales for parents (and sometimes children) to report on such constructs as discord, hostility, cooperation, and conflict over custody or other issues. Measures of past conflict were coded from 5 studies and included the Locke–Wallace Marital Adjustment Scale (Locke &amp; Wallace, 1959); the O’Leary–Porter Overt-Hostility Scale; the Straus Conflict Tactics Scale; and various author-created items or scales for parents or children to rate parental conflict in the past.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Analysis</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Data analysis was carried out using DSTAT software for meta-analysis (Johnson, 1989). This program uses the Hedges and Olkin (1985) methods for meta-analysis for most calculations. For modelling of study qualities that are continuous rather than categorical variables, however, the program uses Rosenthal’s (1984) techniques. This difference is reflected in the statistics reported for modeling of study qualities.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><br />
Results</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Study Characteristics</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">A total of 33 studies, 11 published and 22 unpublished, were included (21 of the unpublished studies were doctoral dissertations). The 33 studies contributed a total of 140 measure-level effect sizes. These studies dated from 1982 to 1999. The combined sample size across studies was 1,846 sole-custody and 814 joint-custody children. Over one third (<em>n </em>= 12) were convenience samples drawn from various sources such as child-care centers, single-parent groups, and word of mouth. Court records of divorce filings and litigation were the source of 11 samples: 6 were drawn from school populations; 2 from clinical samples; 1 from highly conflicted parents (Johnston et al., 1989); 1 from parents seeking counseling at a social services agency (Walker, 1985); and 1 from a national telephone survey (Donnelly &amp; Finkelhor, 1992). Only 6 had a male first author, whereas 26 had a female first author (author sex could not be determined for one study, due to an ambiguous name; <strong>see Table 1</strong>).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Adjustment in Joint Versus Sole Custody</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">First, the study-level effect sizes for joint versus sole custody were analyzed (this analysis included only the joint physical custody effects for Isaacs et al., 1987, and Lerman, 1989, so there was only one effect size for every study). Across the study-level effect sizes, joint-custody children scored significantly higher on adjustment measures than sole-custody children, <em>d </em>= .23 (<em>SD </em>= .27, 95% confidence interval (CI) = .14 –.32), corresponding to an <em>r </em>of .114. According to the guidelines described by Cohen (1988), this effect size is slightly greater than what would be considered a small effect size (<em>d </em>= .20). The effect sizes were not significantly heterogenous, <em>Q</em>(32) = 27.67, <em>p </em>= .62, meaning that they were statistically consistent across studies. As noted earlier, the sole-custody groups were either exclusively maternal custody or primarily maternal custody with a small minority of paternal custody cases; a separate analysis (see the following) was conducted to compare joint and paternal custody children.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">A second overall analysis was conducted using both the joint legal and joint physical samples from Isaacs et al. (1987) and Lerman (1989), so each of these studies contributed two effect sizes. As noted previously, each of these studies had only one sole-custody comparison group, so the study-level effect sizes for joint physical and joint legal custody were not truly independent of each other. Results were nearly identical to the first analysis, <em>d </em>= .26 (<em>SD </em>= .28, 95% CI = .17–.34), and effect sizes were not heterogenous, <em>Q</em>(34) = 32.06, <em>p </em>= .86.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Because joint physical and joint legal custody may differ greatly in terms of time spent with each parent (with only the former clearly involving substantial amounts of time spent living with each parent), separate study-level analyses were conducted to compare joint physical custody and joint legal custody groups to sole-custody groups. In both cases, the joint-custody groups were better adjusted. For joint physical custody versus sole custody (<em>n </em>= 20 studies), <em>d </em>= .29 (<em>SD </em>= .30, 95% CI = .14–.42), and effect sizes were not significantly heterogenous, <em>Q</em>(19) = 18.80, <em>p </em>= .53. For joint legal custody versus sole custody (<em>n </em>= 15 studies, including the joint legal samples from Isaacs et al., 1987, and Lerman, 1989), <em>d </em>= .22 (<em>SD </em>= .24, 95% CI = .10–.34), and effect sizes were again not significantly heterogenous, <em>Q</em>(14) = 12.50, <em>p </em>= .64. Without Isaacs et al. and Lerman, the effect size for the joint legal comparison was smaller but still significant, <em>d </em>= .15 (<em>SD </em>= .21, 95% CI = .01–.28), <em>Q</em>(12) = 6.40, <em>p </em>= .93. A direct contrast of the mean effect sizes for joint physical and joint legal samples revealed that they did not significantly differ from each other either including or excluding the Isaacs et al. and Lerman samples, =2 = 0.69, <em>p </em>= .40, and =2 = 2.50, <em>p </em>= .12, respectively. Based on these findings, the joint physical and joint legal custody comparisons to sole custody were combined for all further analyses.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Comparisons Based on Study-Level Effect Sizes</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Modeling of both categorical and continuous study qualities was performed to determine whether specific qualities of studies or of samples moderated the difference between sole and joint custody. Although effect sizes were not significantly heterogenous, this does not necessarily disallow examination of possible moderators of effect sizes. Rosenthal (1995) stated that contrasts can and should be computed among obtained effect sizes regardless of heterogeneity, because they may still reveal significant results and provide useful information. These analyses included only the joint physical custody effect size for Isaacs et al. (1987) and Lerman (1989), so each study was represented only by a single effect size.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Published and unpublished studies did not differ significantly in effect sizes, <em>QB</em>(1) = 0.09, <em>p </em>= .76. Sex of first author also did not moderate effect sizes, <em>QB</em>(1) = 0.19, <em>p </em>= .66. The proportions of boys in sole-custody groups and in joint-custody groups were not separately related to effect sizes, <em>Z </em>= 1.39, <em>p </em>= .17, and <em>Z </em>= 1.32, <em>p </em>= .19, respectively. Age at time of separation/divorce for sole-custody and joint-custody groups also did not relate to effect sizes, <em>Z </em>= 0.31, <em>p </em>= .75, and <em>Z </em>= 0.34, <em>p </em>= .74, respectively; neither did current age of child/adolescent for sole-custody and joint-custody groups, <em>Z </em>= =0.44, <em>p </em>= .66 and <em>Z </em>= =0.33, <em>p </em>= .74, respectively. The proportion of mothers in the sole-custody groups also did not affect the relationship between custody and adjustment, <em>Z </em>= 0.59, <em>p </em>= .55.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Importantly, sample source was unrelated to effect sizes, <em>QB</em>(4) = 8.15, <em>p </em>= .09 (studies not reporting sample source were excluded from this analysis). Effect sizes in each of the categories with more than one effect size (court, school, and convenience samples) were not significantly heterogenous (only the national sample category had a single effect size; see Donnelly &amp; Finkelhor, 1992, <strong>Table 1</strong>). When examined separately, overall effect sizes were significantly different from zero for convenience samples, <em>d </em>= .28 (<em>SD </em>= .27, 95% CI = .11–.45); samples based on court records, <em>d </em>= .15 (<em>SD </em>= .08, 95% CI = .02–.29); and samples obtained from in-school students, <em>d </em>= .47 (<em>SD </em>= .29, 95% CI = .24–.70). The combined effect size for the two clinical samples did not differ from zero, <em>d </em>= .18 (<em>SD </em>= .49, 95% CI = =.19–.56), and the single national sample had a negative effect size, indicating better adjustment for sole custody children.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a title="bausermantable1.gif" href="http://fkce.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/bausermantable1.gif"><img src="http://fkce.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/bausermantable1.gif?w=482&#038;h=337" alt="bausermantable1.gif" width="482" height="337" /></a><br />
<em>Table 1 :: </em><em>Study Variables and Study-Level Effect Sizes (</em><em>Click on the picture for an enlarged version and </em><em>click on it again for further enlargement.)</em><strong><em> </em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Comparisons Based on Measure-Level Effect Sizes</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Measure-level effect sizes were used for meta-analysis of the effects of type of adjustment measure and identity of the person evaluating the child’s adjustment. The measure-level effect sizes obtained for this analysis are displayed in stemand-leaf format in the Appendix.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>Type of adjustment measure. </em>Type of measure did not significantly moderate effect sizes, <em>QB</em>(6) = 4.85, <em>p </em>= .56. For all categories of adjustment except academic adjustment, joint-custody children were better adjusted than solecustody children: for general (broad) measures of adjustment (<em>n </em>= 24), <em>d </em>= .29 (<em>SD </em>= .41, 95% CI = .18–.41); for family relations (<em>n </em>= 41), <em>d </em>= .23 (<em>SD </em>= .42, 95% CI = .14–.32); for self-esteem (<em>n </em>= 22), <em>d </em>= .30 (<em>SD </em>= .47, 95% CI = .17–.43); for emotional adjustment (<em>n </em>= 20), <em>d </em>= .21 (<em>SD </em>= .38, 95% CI = .11–.32); for behavioral adjustment (<em>n </em>= 12), <em>d </em>= .25 (<em>SD </em>= .18, 95% CI = .12–.38); and for divorce-specific adjustment (<em>n </em>= 14), <em>d </em>= .13 (<em>SD </em>= .42, 95% CI = .01–.25).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">For several categories of adjustment measures, the homogeneity statistic <em>Q </em>indicated that the effect sizes were significantly heterogenous. The largest outlier for each of these categories was removed and the homogeneity rechecked; the procedure was repeated if effect sizes remained nonhomogenous. The DSTAT program identifies the largest outlier as that effect size which, if removed, would reduce the homogeneity statistic <em>Q </em>by the largest amount. Measures of general adjustment were rendered homogenous by removal of two outliers, resulting in an adjusted <em>d </em>= .29 (95% CI = .18–.41). Family adjustment effect sizes were homogenous after removal of one outlier, adjusted <em>d </em>= .19 (95% CI = .09–.28). Academicadjustment effects also were homogenous after removal of a single outlier, adjusted <em>d </em>= .06 (95% CI==.17–=.30), as were divorce-specific effects, adjusted <em>d </em>= .19 (95% CI = .07–.32).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>Person completing measure. </em>The identity of the person completing the adjustment measure did not significantly moderate effect sizes, <em>QB</em>(5) = 6.74, <em>p </em>= .24. For all categories of persons completing the adjustment measure, joint custody children were better adjusted than solecustody children, with the 95% confidence interval excluding zero: for child-completed measures (<em>n </em>= 81), <em>d </em>= .19 (<em>SD </em>= .44, 95% CI = .13–.25); for mother-completed measures (<em>n </em>= 18), <em>d </em>= .32 (<em>SD </em>= .39, 95% CI = .20–.45); for father-completed measures (<em>n </em>= 17), <em>d </em>= .30 (<em>SD </em>= .18, 95% CI = .12–.48); for measures completed by an unspecified parent (<em>n </em>= 17), <em>d </em>= .19 (<em>SD </em>= .31, 95% CI =.07–.31); for teacher-completed measures (<em>n </em>= 9), <em>d </em>= .40 (<em>SD </em>= .37, 95% CI = .16 –.64); and for measures completed by clinicians (<em>n </em>= 7), <em>d </em>= .27 (<em>SD </em>= .45, 95% CI =.07–.46).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
The Role of Conflict</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Effect sizes were calculated comparing joint-custody and sole-custody groups on the basis of conflict now (<em>n </em>= 14 studies) and conflict in the past (<em>n </em>= 5 studies). The remaining studies did not report conflict data. For current conflict, joint-custody groups reported significantly less across the 14 studies, <em>d </em>= .24 (<em>SD </em>= .58, 95% CI = .11–.37). For past conflict, joint-custody groups again reported less across the 5 studies, <em>d </em>= .33 (<em>SD </em>= .20, 95% CI = .10–.55). Next, both past and current conflict were tested as moderators of the adjustment difference between joint and sole custody. Neither was a significant predictor of the joint-custody advantage in adjustment (for past conflict, <em>Z </em>= 0.505, <em>p </em>= .61; for current conflict, <em>Z </em>= 1.349, <em>p </em>=.18). One problem that may have obscured a potential relationship was the relatively small proportion of studies that actually provided codable data on group differences in conflict; for past conflict in particular, only 5 studies allowed such a comparison.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Adjustment in Joint Versus Paternal Custody</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">A total of 8 studies included paternal custody groups composed entirely of custodial fathers (Granite, 1985; Hendrickson, 1991; Johnston et al., 1989; Luepnitz, 1982; Mensink, 1987; Spence, 1992; Warren, 1983; Welsh-Osga, 1982). Separate groups of custodial mothers from these studies were included in the joint- versus sole-custody comparisons already examined. Because of the relatively small number of samples, analyses were conducted based on study-level effect sizes only, and study qualities were not analyzed as moderators of this comparison. As with sole custody, these effect sizes were obtained by calculating measure-level effect sizes and then averaging for each study (there were a total of 40 effect sizes across all 8 studies). Overall, differences in adjustment were in the direction of better adjustment for joint-custody children, <em>d </em>= .20, but this difference was nonsignificant (95% CI = =.06–.46). Effect sizes were not significantly heterogenous, <em>Q</em>(7) = 5.26, <em>p </em>= .63.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em> </em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><em><br />
Adjustment in Joint Custody Versus Intact Families</em></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">A total of 8 studies compared joint-custody children with intact-family children, with 45 effect sizes (Glover &amp; Steele, 1989; Hendrickson, 1991; Ilfeld, 1989; Karp, 1982; Mensink, 1987; Pojman, 1981; Spence, 1992; Welsh-Osga, 1982). Again, average effect sizes were computed for each study and comparisons were based on the study-level effects. As with the joint-custody/paternal custody comparison, study qualities were not analyzed as moderators of the adjustment comparisons. There was no difference between joint-custody and intact-family children, <em>d </em>= =.0002 (95% CI = =0.27–0.27). Again, the effect sizes were not significantly heterogenous, <em>Q</em>(7) = 5.34, <em>p </em>= .62.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;"><br />
Discussion</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Based on these results, children in joint custody are better adjusted, across multiple types of measures, than children in sole (primarily maternal) custody. This difference is found with both joint legal and joint physical custody and appears robust, remaining significant even when testing various categorical and continuous qualities of the research studies as moderators. For measure-level effect sizes, the effect sizes do not significantly differ across types of adjustment measures. This finding is consistent with the hypothesis that joint custody can be beneficial to children in a wide range of family, emotional, behavioral, and academic domains. Similarly, Amato and Gilbreth’s (1999) meta-analysis of non-resident father involvement showed that closeness to the father and authoritative parenting by the father were positively associated with behavioral adjustment, emotional adjustment, and school achievement. Joint-custody children showed better adjustment in parental relations and spent significant amounts of time with the father, allowing more opportunity for authoritative parenting. The findings for joint legal custody samples indicate that children do not actually need to be in joint <em>physical </em>custody to show better adjustment, but it is important to note that joint legal custody children typically spent a substantial amount of time with the father as well. Importantly, a causal role for joint custody cannot be demonstrated because of the correlational nature of all research in this area.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">The effect size did not significantly vary according to the identity of the person completing the adjustment measure, indicating that on average mothers, fathers, children, teachers, and clinicians, all rated child adjustment as better in joint-custody settings. The ratings by mothers are notable because mothers might perceive joint custody as a loss of expected control as primary custodians and be less likely to perceive children as benefiting. Some authors have claimed that mothers are the primary “losers” in joint-custody situations (Kuehl, 1989). However, mothers appear just as likely as other evaluators to perceive joint custody as beneficial to their children’s adjustment.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">For study-level effect sizes, the better adjustment in joint custody did not vary according to the age of the children in either the sole- or joint-custody groups. Although the period from early childhood through adolescence is marked by many developmental tasks and changes, it may be that ongoing positive involvement with both parents at any of these ages can prove beneficial. The effect sizes also did not significantly vary according to characteristics of the study, such as unpublished versus published status. Unlike research literature in some areas, the literature on child adjustment in different custody arrangements does not show a bias toward larger effect sizes in published studies.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Notably, the source of the sample (court, convenience, or school-based) did not moderate effect sizes either. The effect size for the single national sample (Donnelly &amp; Finkelhor, 1992) was not significantly different from zero, but this telephone survey included only three questions about parent–child relationships only. The two clinical samples also did not show an advantage for joint custody, but at least one of these (Johnston et al., 1989) was specifically selected for unusually high levels of parental conflict. Further research with a variety of sample types, especially national samples if possible, is clearly needed.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Given the relevance of parental conflict to child adjustment, the fact that lesser conflict in joint-custody groups did not significantly predict the better adjustment of children in joint custody may seem puzzling. The result may be an artifact of the small amount of variance found on this measure. Effect sizes for joint-custody/sole-custody conflict comparisons tended to be small, as shown previously, so the small differences found when comparing groups may have obscured a genuine relationship between parental conflict and child adjustment within groups. For past conflict, the small number of studies where such a comparison was possible (<em>n </em>= 5) may also have limited power to detect a significant relationship. Future research on custody and adjustment should measure, and statistically control for, the effects of level of parental conflict.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">It is also surprising that the majority of the studies reviewed did not attempt to statistically control for parental conflict levels, or even directly compare levels of conflict between joint- and sole-custody parents. In those studies that did examine conflict, joint-custody couples reported less conflict at the time of separation or divorce. This is consistent with the argument that joint-custody couples are self-selected for low conflict and that better adjustment for their children may reflect this lack of conflict; parental conflict remains an important confound in research comparing adjustment in different custody settings. However, some research that has controlled for preexisting levels of conflict continues to show an advantage for child adjustment in joint custody (Gunnoe &amp; Braver, 2001). The fact that jointcustody couples also reported less current conflict is important because of the concern that joint custody can be harmful by exposing children to ongoing parental conflict. In fact, it was the sole-custody parents who reported higher levels of current conflict.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">It is also possible that direct comparisons of conflict between joint- and sole-custody parents may not be especially meaningful. King and Heard (1999) analyzed the relationships between father contact, parental conflict, and mother satisfaction in divorced families and found no simple, direct relationship among these variables. Conflict was highest at middle levels of visitation and lower when father contact was very high (as in joint physical custody) or very low. Mother satisfaction was higher at the most and least frequent levels of visitation, and highest with high levels of paternal contact and low levels of conflict. Conflict did not moderate or mediate the relationship between father contact and mother satisfaction. King and Heard argue that some mothers may be grateful for ongoing father contact even if some conflict occurs. Low conflict could signal either good parental relations or very little or no father contact (due to maternal desires, father withdrawal, etc.).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">The effect size indicating better adjustment of jointcustody versus paternal custody children was statistically nonsignificant, failing to support the hypothesis of better adjustment for joint-custody children. However, the effect was almost the same in magnitude as the effect size favoring joint over maternal/sole custody. With only 8 studies for the joint versus paternal comparison, but 33 for the broader joint- versus sole-custody comparison, lack of statistical power may have been a problem. Given the relatively small magnitude of the apparent effect size, if joint-custody and paternal custody children really do differ in adjustment, more studies with larger samples may be needed to detect the effect at the level of statistical significance.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">As hypothesized, joint custody and intact family children did not differ in adjustment. This finding is consistent with the argument made by some researchers that joint custody is beneficial because it provides the child with ongoing contact with both parents. At the same time, as mentioned earlier, selection bias cannot be ruled out. Parents who have better relationships prior to, or during, the divorce process may self-select into joint custody, such that quality of parental relationship is confounded with custody status. The lower level of conflict in joint-custody families, relative to solecustody families, is consistent with this alternative hypothesis. Further research that controls for parental conflict prior to, during, and after divorce may be the only practical way to compensate for this possibility. Another possibility for controlling selection bias might be separate comparisons of sole custody with voluntary and court-imposed joint custody.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><br />
Implications for Application and Public Policy</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">A major shortcoming of many of the studies reviewed was inadequate reporting of statistical results; many did not provide basic information on means and standard deviations of adjustment measures in the different custody groups, even when <em>t </em>tests or other statistical tests were reported and indicated significant differences. In some cases where differences were reported to be nonsignificant, means were reported but no standard deviations, making it necessary to estimate standard deviations from published norms for the measures used. Some studies failed to report any useful statistics at all, simply stating that there were no significant differences between groups (e.g., Ilfeld, 1989), which required that effect sizes be set to zero to allow inclusion of the study. Future researchers need to report statistical findings more carefully to make sure their results are useful for quantitative as well as qualitative reviews.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Larger sample sizes would also be valuable in future research. The effect size favoring joint custody in the current meta-analysis (<em>d </em>= .23) is just above what Cohen (1988) labeled a small effect size. Statistical significance is a function of both the effect size, or magnitude, of the phenomenon being studied and the sample size used in the research. Thus, the small size of many of the joint- (and sole-) custody groups in the research to date increases the risk of Type II error (failure to detect real differences). Of the 33 studies included in the meta-analysis, 23 had jointcustody groups and 16 had sole-custody groups with fewer than 30 participants. Especially in studies involving relatively small numbers of participants, researchers should report basic data for each group on each adjustment measure to help reviewers assess the magnitude of effects.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">A further need exists for longitudinal research to assess the relative advantage of joint over sole custody across time. More follow-up studies reporting on the same sample over time, beyond adolescence and into adulthood, are needed. In general, researchers have found that as adults, children from divorced family backgrounds continue to have more difficulties than those from intact-family backgrounds (Amato &amp; Keith, 1991a). Comparison of college or community samples of adults from joint- versus sole-custody backgrounds would be especially useful in determining whether joint-custody benefits extend into adulthood, because most of the research to date has been limited to convenience samples or samples from court records.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">The current results appear favorable to advocates of joint custody (e.g., Bender, 1994) who favor a presumption of joint custody in divorce cases. By the early 1990s, most states had introduced laws making joint custody available as an option, or even as a rebuttable presumption, in divorce cases (Bruch, 1992). However, current research suggests that judges in some areas continue to show a strong preference for maternal custody and tend to oppose joint physical custody (Stamps, Kunen, &amp; Rock-Facheux, 1997). It is important to recognize that the findings reported here do not demonstrate a causal relationship between joint custody and better child adjustment. However, the research reviewed here does not support claims by critics of joint custody that joint-custody children are likely to be exposed to more conflict or to be at greater risk of adjustment problems due to having to adjust to two households or feeling “torn” between parents. Joint-custody arrangements (whether legal or physical) do not appear, on average, to be harmful to any aspect of children’s well-being, and may in fact be beneficial. This suggests that courts should not discourage parents from attempting joint custody.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">It is important to recognize that the results clearly do not support joint custody as preferable to, or even equal to, sole custody in all situations. For instance, when one parent is clearly abusive or neglectful, a sole-custody arrangement may be the best solution. Similarly, if one parent suffers from serious mental health or adjustment difficulties, a child may be harmed by continued exposure to such an environment. Also, some authors have proposed that in situations of high parental conflict, joint custody may be detrimental because it will expose the child to intense, ongoing parental conflict (e.g., Johnston et al., 1989). However, this last argument may be applicable mainly to extremes of parental conflict. Some research indicates that joint custody may actually work to reduce levels of parental conflict over time, meaning that whatever risk exposure to parental conflict involves will be reduced (Bender, 1994).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Results of custody and adjustment studies need to be communicated more widely to judges, lawyers, social workers, counselors, and other professionals involved in divorce counseling and litigation, as well as divorce researchers in general. Such communication could lead to better-informed policy decisions based on research evidence, and betterinformed decision making in individual cases. There continues to be an urgent need for additional research on child custody and adjustment that corrects problems such as small sample sizes, inadequate control of confounding variables, and inadequate reporting of statistical results. However, the available research is consistent with the hypothesis that joint custody may be beneficial to children, and fails to show any clear disadvantage relative to sole custody.</p>
<div><strong>&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;</strong></div>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:16pt;">References</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>References marked in blue with an asterisk [*] indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.</em></p>
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<li><span style="color:#333399;">[*] Shiller, V. M. (1986). Joint versus maternal custody for families with latency age boys: Parent characteristics and child adjustment. <em>American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 56, </em>486–489.</span></li>
<li><span style="color:#333399;">[*] Silitsky, D. (1996). Correlates of psychosocial adjustment in adolescents from divorced families. <em>Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 26</em>(1/2), 151–169.</span></li>
<li><span style="color:#333399;">[*] Spence, L. (1992). Furthering our understanding of postseparation behavioral adjustment of children in three postdivorce family types: Mother-custody, father-custody, and jointcustody families. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.</span></li>
<li>Stamps, L. E., Kunen, S., &amp; Rock-Facheux, A. (1997). Judges’ beliefs dealing with child custody decisions. <em>Journal of Divorce &amp; Remarriage, 27</em>(1/2), 105–122.</li>
<li>Steinman, S. (1981). The experience of children in a joint custody arrangement: A report of a study. <em>American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 51, </em>403–414.</li>
<li>Straus, M. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. <em>Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, </em>75–86.</li>
<li>Twaite, J. A., &amp; Luchow, A. K. (1996). Custodial arrangements and parental conflict following divorce: The impact on children’s adjustment. <em>The Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 24, </em>53–75.</li>
<li><span style="color:#333399;">[*] Vela-Trujillo, V. (1996). Post-divorce adjustment of latency-aged children as a function of custody arrangement, parent–child contact, and interparental relationship: <em>Dissertation Abstracts International, 58, </em>99.</span></li>
<li><span style="color:#333399;">[*] Walker, A. (1985). <em>Satisfaction of adolescents experiencing various patterns of visitation with their divorced fathers. </em>Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.<em> </em></span></li>
<li><span style="color:#333399;">[*] Warren, J. A. (1983). Adolescent adjustment to parental divorce as a function of custody arrangements. <em>Dissertation Abstracts International, 45, </em>136–137.</span></li>
<li>Warshak, R. A. (1986). Father-custody and child development: A review and analysis of psychological research. <em>Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 4, </em>112–135.</li>
<li><span style="color:#333399;">[*] Welsh-Osga, B. K. (1982). The effects of custody arrangements on children of divorce. <em>Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, </em>4946.</span></li>
<li>Wirt, R. D., Lachar, D., Klinedienst, S. K., &amp; Seat, P. D. (1984). <em>Multi-dimensional description of child personality: A manual for the Personality Inventory for Children. </em>Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.</li>
<li><span style="color:#333399;">[*] Wolchik, S. A., Braver, S. L., &amp; Sandler, I. N. (1985). Maternal versus joint custody: Children’s postseparation experiences and adjustment. <em>Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 14, </em>5–10.</span></li>
</ul>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong> </strong><strong>&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;&gt;</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Received September 6, 2000</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Revision received March 13, 2001</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Accepted July 25, 2001</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em>(*) This research was not done as part of official duties with the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene or under its auspices.</em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Robert Bauserman, AIDS Administration/Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 500 North Calvert Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21202. <a href="mailto:bausermanr@dhmh.state.md.us" target="_blank">E-mail</a>.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">American Psychological Association APA, <a href="http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/fam16191.pdf" target="_blank">Journal of Family Psychology</a>, 91–102 0893-3200/02/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//0893-3200.16.1.9191, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2002<strong> </strong></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Appendix</span></strong></p>
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		<title>Dwelling Choices for Divorce Children (Tornstam, 1996)</title>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 1996 04:57:45 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[By Lars Tornstam [1] Table of Contents Dwelling Choices for Divorce Children (Separationsbarns boende) Distinctions and Methodologies Early Research on Caring for Offspring The Effects of Divorce on Children The consequences of different forms of care on children Boys and Girls Sole Parenting versus shared parenting What do children think? Visiting fathers and fathers with&#160;&#8230; <a href="http://sharedparenting.wordpress.com/1996/03/01/3/">Read&#160;more</a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=sharedparenting.wordpress.com&amp;blog=1566479&amp;post=32&amp;subd=sharedparenting&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>By Lars Tornstam</strong> [1]</p>
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<div><strong>Table of Contents</strong></div>
<div id="toc-list">
<div style="margin-left:1em;"><a href="#toc0">Dwelling Choices for Divorce Children (Separationsbarns boende)</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:2em;"><a href="#toc1">Distinctions and Methodologies</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:2em;"><a href="#toc2">Early Research on Caring for Offspring</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:2em;"><a href="#toc3">The Effects of Divorce on Children</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:2em;"><a href="#toc4">The consequences of different forms of care on children</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:3em;"><a href="#toc5">Boys and Girls</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:3em;"><a href="#toc6">Sole Parenting versus shared parenting</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:2em;"><a href="#toc7">What do children think?</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:2em;"><a href="#toc8">Visiting fathers and fathers with shared parenting</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:2em;"><a href="#toc9">Mothers with sole custody and mothers with shared parenting</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:2em;"><a href="#toc10">Policy recommendations and practical advice</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:2em;"><a href="#toc11">Footnotes</a></div>
<div style="margin-left:2em;"><a href="#toc12">References</a></div>
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<p><em>In the future one can count on social workers to an increasing degree taking part in counselling and advice regarding the children of divorce and other broken relationships. One can reckon with an increasing percentage, of these children being in joint custody, displacing the custody disputes from a question of legal custody to a question of where the children shall dwell. In this research review, the investigations are examined and compared for their effects on adjustment and development, of different custody and dwelling choices for the children of separated parents. The research results point rather universally to the advantages with that which the Swedes call half-dwelling, i.e. that parents aren’t just in the legal sense both responsible for their children, but also in sharing the daily practical responsibilities through having the children living alternatively with them.</em></p>
<p>People in many countries have developed a policy and a system of rules, with the children’s best interests as the guiding light, which allows separated parents to have shared custody of their children. A statistic which reflects this are the court/decisions about custody (where the parents have previously been married) which were made in the Family Court in Sweden in 1992. Here shared custody of children was 79%, mothers alone had custody in 19% of cases and fathers in about 2% (Vårdnadstvistutredningen, 1995).</p>
<p>In Sweden there is also a new law being created for the care of children. Previously the courts have been unable to decide on joint custody if either of the parents opposed it. Among the Scandinavian countries, the courts in both Finland and Norway already have that possibility. The trend is, however, undoubtedly that more and more decisions on joint custody are going to be handed down. This can, as the Swedish Vårdnadstvistutredningen (1995) points out, lead to parents, in the future, disputing the children’s dwelling place rather than who has legal custody. This makes it much more important for all the participants, (in the counselling and/or processes of decision making about the dwelling place for children of broken relationships), to base their conclusions and operations on scientific knowledge and proven experience. Lassbo (1994) states that with regards to the family structure’s effect on children’s development, there is too little empirical knowledge and too much guesswork and theorizing.</p>
<p>Therefore a literary search into scientific research on this subject has been undertaken. Mainly, to investigate where science and proven experience stands regarding the dwelling of the children of separated parents, and in particular to look into the question of “half-dwelling” versus “whole dwelling” consequences. Searching via library data bases and search engines on the Internet gave a very poor result with regards to Scandinavian research in the area. The main part of the research which is reviewed here, comes from North America. Against these findings, the argument may be raised that the conditions in other countries are so different from Scandinavian conditions that no relevant conclusions can be drawn. Lassbo (1994) feels that for example countries with well developed social politics, such as those in Scandinavia, cannot be compared in the social political arena with less developed countries. Welfare systems may create, for example, good external conditions for one-parent families to function successfully – which is one of the main messages in Lassbo&#8217;s (op. cit.) article.</p>
<p>If one, in spite of the above mentioned objections, considers that children’s psycho/social needs and development are pretty much the same in most countries, we should not ignore studies from non-Scandinavian countries, but instead gain essential information from them.</p>
<h3 id="toc1">Distinctions and Methodologies</h3>
<p>It must be pointed out that the main theme, in this review, is the comparison of the development of children and their feelings dependent whether or not they live with one parent (whole dwelling) or interchangeably with the mother and father (half dwelling). The goal of this review is not to compare children of separated parents, with those from intact families.</p>
<p>In the English language <em>sole custody</em> is the equivalent of our ”ensam vårdnad”, and <em>joint (or shared) custody</em> is that which we mean with “gemensam vårdnad”, i.e. that both partners have in a legal sense control-custody of the children. In many early (1970’s) works, but also in a number of later works one uses the term joint custody to refer to what we call hälftenboende, that is that children in a physical sense live interchangeably with mother and father.</p>
<p>This means that in a number of studies, where one wishes to study the effects of “sole custody (ensam vårdnad)” compared to “joint custody” proves difficult. This is partially due to the category “joint custody” including cases where the real spirit of the term has been carried through, as well as, cases where one of the parents (most often the father), in spite of the legal conditions, has met the children less often. In a similar way, in a number of cases, “sole custody” in reality has been more like joint custody, as contact with the non-custodial parent has occurred in a legal sense, to a high degree.</p>
<p>If one makes the not unreasonable assumption that it is the “real contact” with children that counts, rather than the legal agreement, which can influence children’s development and adjustment. This means that the above differences found when comparing sole- versus joint custody tend to be underestimated.</p>
<p>The problem of definition was noted rather quickly, and a differentiation began to be made between</p>
<ol>
<li><em>joint legal custody</em>, where the parents in a legal sense decide together about their children’s schooling, etc., and</li>
<li><em>joint physical custody</em>, where parents share in the daily care of their children.</li>
</ol>
<p>In this review I use the following translations:</p>
<ul>
<li>sole custody = <em>ensam vårdnad</em></li>
<li>joint (shared) legal custody = <em>gemensam vårdnad</em></li>
<li>joint (shared) physical custody, shared parenting = <em>hälftenboende</em></li>
</ul>
<p>Those investigations that have been examined are very heterogeneous with regards to when and how measurements were taken, as well as, children’s ages at the time of separation in the respective investigations. Investigations include children from newborn until 12 years of age at the time of separation, and who were between 3 and 15 years of age at the time of the respective investigations. In a number of studies the investigations were only undertaken at one point after separation, in other cases separated families have been studied regularly up to four years after separation. The sample selection of separated families has also varied from random selection to systematic selection of, for example, families with high levels of conflict.</p>
<p>In spite of all these differences, research results show a great deal of agreement, (more on this below).</p>
<h3 id="toc2">Early Research on Caring for Offspring</h3>
<p>Judging from the literature, it was first during the early seventies that research on questions of child care took off. Prior to that it appears sole custody, with the mother as the obvious caregiver, was unquestioned. [2]</p>
<p>With increasing frequency in divorce and increasing thoughts of equality between the sexes, came a questioning of the established order with the mother as the natural and obvious custodial person. Joint custody and shared parenting (sometimes called <em>delad vård</em> or <em>växelboende</em>) began to show up as new alternatives to the established pattern.</p>
<p>Warning fingers were, however, soon raised. In a frequently quoted book, Goldstein et.al. (1973) argues against joint custody and shared parenting. Moving back and forth between parents could, he reasoned, create confusion, loss of feelings of roots, conflicts of loyalty, etc.</p>
<p>The arguments were, however, not based on any investigations of the consequences of different forms of care, rather, they were based upon theoretical and logical reasoning. Later research would show that these fears were not justified. Steinman (1981) could for example refute the assumption regarding conflicts of loyalty for children in shared parenting situations.</p>
<p>Luepnitz (1986) and Shiller (1986a) have both shown that shared parenting did not cause insecurity or confusion in children.</p>
<p>In a research review Coller (1988) writes:</p>
<blockquote><p>“….. it is now clear that joint custody does not pose the kind of threat foreseen by Goldstein et.al., and in many cases it clearly offers substantial benefits to both children and parents.” (p 460)</p></blockquote>
<h3 id="toc3">The Effects of Divorce on Children</h3>
<p>That children suffer in divorces ought not to need to be questioned. That they also have a developmental handicap is pointed out in almost all studies. Lassbo (1994) presented a line of studies which showed how children from one parent families in many respects are worse off than children in two parent families, but, presented at the same time a Swedish study which shows the differences are probably not so great.</p>
<p>When it was a matter of psychological effects of a divorce, it has been shown that the father&#8217;s partial or total disappearance, which in reality has been the issue, does have negative effects.</p>
<p>Parish (1987) reviews his own and other investigations which confirm that the father&#8217;s absence has negative effects on the children, such as, poor social adjustment, anxiety, weakened self-image and problems in school.</p>
<p>When it’s a matter of the social effects, the American statistics regarding the child&#8217;s relationship in &#8220;fatherless families&#8221; has also been alarming. Children from &#8220;fatherless families&#8221;; run twenty times greater risk of showing behavioral problems; nine times greater risk of leaving school before graduation and ten times greater risk to be a user/misuser of narcotics etc. (Schildt, 1994). Lassbo (1994) suggests that the statistics are over interpreted and exaggerated, but the Swedish research pair, Öberg &amp; Öberg (1992) has through in-depth interviews with &#8220;fatherless&#8221; children and &#8220;childless&#8221; fathers, in fact, shown the negative psychological importance of a child&#8217;s lost contact with his/her father, which we can never ignore.</p>
<p>Both boys and girls are affected negatively by divorces, but several studies have shown that divorce impacts more seriously on boys than on girls in regards to the loss of daily contact with their father. (Wallerstein &amp; Kelly, 1980; Kelly, 1981; Warshak &amp; Santrock, 1983; Emery et.al., 1984)</p>
<h3 id="toc4">The consequences of different forms of care on children</h3>
<h4 id="toc5">Boys and Girls</h4>
<p>In studies where one has compared cases with fathers and respective mothers with solo care of children, one common characteristic that correlates with better adjustment in the children has been the similarity of gender between the caretaker and the children. (Warshak &amp; Santrock, 1983), In other words, girls show more positive development if the caretaker is the mother, while boys show more positive development if the caretaker is the father. However, according to the same source, the development in both of these cases has more problems when compared to well functioning intact families.</p>
<p>Pojman (1982) has found that boys in shared parenting show similarly good adjustment to boys in well functioning intact families. Boys in share parenting showed also significantly better adjustment than both boys in sole care and boys in intact problem families. Also Shiller (1986 b) has reported similar results. Boys in shared parenting had fewer emotional and behavioural disturbances compared to when the mother had sole care.</p>
<h4 id="toc6">Sole Parenting versus shared parenting</h4>
<p>In Sweden there seems to be, judging after the results of a search, only one study where one has investigated families who, after divorce, have chosen different ways in the parenting question. It is the couple Bente and Gunnar Öberg (1985), both psychological family therapists, who have carried out in-depth interviews with sixty randomly drawn divorce families. Half of these had chosen shared parenting; the other half sole care. At the time of the interviews at least 5 years had passed since the divorce, and children were then anything between 5 and 18 years old. As this has to do with a qualitative study, there was no simple measurement by which one could compare the results of the two forms of care. From the view of the in-depth interviews the emphasis is however, that the picture of shared parenting takes precedence before sole parenting. In a later work, which can be recommended for reading, (Öberg &amp; Öberg, 1987) the authors list the advantages and disadvantages associated with different care forms. The longest and most convincing list of advantages is for shared care. [3]</p>
<p>In those investigations where one has, with a comparative quantitative design, compared the effects of sole parenting and respective shared parenting, do the results speak rather unanimously to the advantages of shared parenting.</p>
<p>Different psychological measurements, have with a whole line of investigations found that children in shared parenting show more positive development &#8211; a greater satisfaction, better adjustment, better ego strength and self-confidence etc in comparison with children in sole parenting. (Nunan, 1980; Cowan, 1983; Pojman, 1982; Livingston, 1983; Noonan, 1984; Shiller, 1984, 1986; Handley, 1985; Wolchik, 1985; Bredfield, 1985). Others, for example Karp (1982) have in logical agreement with these results, found that children in sole care had more conflicts with their parents compared with children in shared parenting.</p>
<p>In some investigations however, one finds only marginal or no difference between children in shared parenting and children in sole parenting environments. Kline et.al (1989) studied, for example, 93 children of divorce whose ages were between 3 and 14 years during a three year period after the divorce and found that it was &#8220;only&#8221; with regards to emotional adjustment that children in shared care showed marginally better results than children in sole parenting.</p>
<p>Children in shared parenting had also, which by definition follows with shared parenting, but is therefore nonetheless important, <em>better access to both parents</em>. With regards to behavioural disturbances and social adjustment no differences were found between those children of shared parenting and those children in sole parenting.</p>
<h3 id="toc7">What do children think?</h3>
<p>Both Abarbanel (1979) and Luepnitz (1986) have found that shared care is what children themselves prefer, as it is that &#8220;family form&#8221; which gives the best continuity with both parents and which lies closest to the intact family that they themselves would prefer to see. In a comparison between sole parenting and shared parenting Luepnitz (1982) found that children in sole care, as a rule, were dissatisfied with the degree of involvement with that parent who didn&#8217;t have care (that would say in the greatest number of cases &#8211; the father), while children in shared parenting were satisfied by their contact with both parents.</p>
<p>In a research review Kelly (1988) summarizes children&#8217;s own descriptions:</p>
<blockquote><p>Compared with children in sole maternal custody, joint (physical) custody youngsters were more satisfied with their arrangements (Handley, 1985, Luepnitz, 1982, 1986) and did not struggle with the sense of loss and deprivation so characteristic of children in sole custody families. (Luepnitz, 1982, Steinman, 1981). Most youngsters considered having two homes advantageous and the extra effort of making transitions between homes to be very worthwhile, because it enabled them to be close to both parents. (p.131.)</p></blockquote>
<h3 id="toc8">Visiting fathers and fathers with shared parenting</h3>
<p>When it is a matter of children in sole parenting with the mother there is a well-ingrained tendency that fathers, in spite of the best intentions, appear to pull aside and disappear out into the periphery. Doctor Sanford L. Braver (1995), who has carried out 25 years of research about the effect of divorce reported about this from an ongoing study of fathers&#8217; experiences at a conference in 1995:</p>
<blockquote><p>…their experience was not one of &#8216;withdrawing&#8217; at all. Rather, they felt expelled, kicked out, thrust out of their children&#8217;s lives. They felt that the system, their exspouses and society&#8217;s attitudes in combination seemed to combine in such a way as to just get them out of the kid&#8217;s lives, so they felt that the kids weren&#8217;t really theirs anymore.</p></blockquote>
<p>Irving et.al. (1984) could in a large empirical study instead show that fathers in shared parenting arrangements came to take a larger part in the children&#8217;s daily lives than they did before the divorce. This meant that children in shared parenting, in fact had more daily contact with their fathers than before the divorce.</p>
<p>Risman (1986) has also found empirical support for the parental sex role, in that it is structurally effective and changes character when the relationship changes. The role of the father is not locked but is flexible and dependent on conditions. Fathers who have a concrete and daily care responsibility change their role behaviour so that they not only have more time with the children, but also be more of both &#8220;papa and mamma&#8221;.</p>
<h3 id="toc9">Mothers with sole custody and mothers with shared parenting</h3>
<p>Luepnitz (1986) found in a study that mothers in shared parenting arrangements to a smaller degree suffered &#8220;burnout&#8221;, compared with sole-parent mothers. Hanson (1985) found those mothers with shared parenting had better psychological health than sole parent mothers. Maccoby et.al. (1986) found that mothers with shared-parenting were more satisfied with their situation than sole parent mothers. Irving et.al. (1984) found that mother&#8217;s satisfaction with shared parenting as a rule increased the longer time went by. Karen DeCrow, past president for the National Organisation for Women in the United States wrote on the 1st May 1994 the following in The Syracuse Times:</p>
<blockquote><p>Shared parenting is not only fair to men and children, it is the best option for women after observing women&#8217;s rights and responsibilities for more than a quarter century of feminist activism, I conclude that shared parenting is great for women, giving time and opportunity for female parents to pursue education, training, jobs, careers, professions and leisure.</p></blockquote>
<p>There is a study however, where the picture is not as light for women with shared parenting. Leff (1995) interviewed 8 women, four years after a court decision [4] against their will began shared parenting. It appears that if they were forced into shared parenting against their will it increased the conflicts which were originally the cause that the parents couldn&#8217;t themselves come to agreement in the question of care, so that a court decision became necessary. This lessor light total picture however, writes Leff (op.cit) in his summary that:</p>
<blockquote><p>Yet, four years later, [after shared parenting began] all of the participants admit deriving some benefits from it. Each woman agreed that the periods of &#8220;time-off&#8221; from their children provided them with great peace and freedom. All participants were pleased with the new, more powerful self that had emerged.</p></blockquote>
<h3 id="toc10">Policy recommendations and practical advice</h3>
<p>Coller (1988) writes, after going through the research in this area, it seems that shared parenting is the form of care that ought to be given the highest priority and be the normal situation. In the condition that there are strong contraindicators against shared parenting joint legal custody with a sole residency is recommended. Sole legal and physical custody should be the very last option.</p>
<p>Contra indications against shared parenting can be a so high level of conflict between the parents that repeated mediation attempts do not succeed, with a pattern where parents are constantly pursuing court processes against each other with the children as a weapon. Mental illness, drug abuse and social maladjustment of either of the parents can as well be contra indicators.</p>
<p>When it comes to the reality of shared parenting Friedman (1994) who is a psychotherapist, with clinical experience of shared parenting children and their parents, considers that parents can neither nor need to be free of conflicts to succeed with shared parenting.</p>
<p>However, one must learn to communicate openly about that one considers best for children. The parents should agree that they can disagree and still care for the children appropriately.</p>
<p>Regarding the schedule for residence Friedman suggests that for children under six it is best to begin with &#8220;split weeks&#8221; to later go over to a week/week or longer time interval to be with each of the parents. To avoid too much movement of clothes and other things back and forth, with the attendant forgotten things, [potential reasons for conflict], it is recommended that in the beginning to have double sets of clothes, playthings etc.</p>
<p>In the Swedish study of 60 divorced families (Öberg &amp; Öberg 1987) shared parenting pairs had most often decided on a model where children lived alternating weeks with each parent. Some children changed homes more often than once a week. Children were Monday and Tuesday with one of the parents, Wednesday &amp; Thursday with the other, and Friday to Sunday alternating, with each of the parents.</p>
<p>Öberg &amp; Öberg write of this model:</p>
<blockquote><p>In reality this means that one is five days in a row with each parent during a 14 day period. The schedule can seem more split up than in reality it is.</p>
<p>The advantage with this system is that both children and parents have fixed reoccurring days with each other. A mother can go to a course every Wednesday and know she is always free of children that evening. A child can play cello on Tuesdays and doesn&#8217;t need to carry the instrument between homes every week.</p>
<p>Another advantage was formulated by a seven year old: &#8220;When one changes so often one doesn&#8217;t have time to miss anybody and it feels almost as if one lives together with both the whole time.&#8221; (P 74 &#8211; 75)</p></blockquote>
<p>Öberg &amp; Öberg (op.cit.) point out that parents must live near each other, so the children avoid long travel distances when with either parent. Geographically it is ideal that the parents live within the same school district according to Friedman (1994). Furstenberg et.al. (1985) has shown that the shorter the distance is between parent&#8217;s dwellings the greater is the probability that shared parenting will function well.</p>
<p>For those of us that take it as a given that children should have their say is Friedman&#8217;s (op. cit.) understanding of this question worthy of thinking about. In opposition to the common occurrence in several countries, [5] warns Friedman (op cit), especially in questions of care and dwelling, to ask the children where they would like to live:</p>
<blockquote><p>…it puts him or her in a no win situation that lasts a lifetime. A child is made up of both parents, Sometimes the guilt of this decision does not set until the child becomes a parent, but it almost always causes a deep sense of betrayal and the nagging &#8220;I should have been able to deal with it&#8221; when referring to the parent they did not choose.</p></blockquote>
<p>Also in Sweden, Öberg &amp; Öberg (1987) has come to a similar insight:</p>
<blockquote><p>We think principally that the question of where a child should live should be decided by the parents […] to allow younger children to choose with whom they should live will in most cases mean that one is putting the child in a difficult conflict of loyalties.</p></blockquote>
<p>Öberg &amp; Öberg mean however, that at the same time children who are teenagers should be included in the discussions even if the decision for the same reasons as above ought to be concluded by the parents.</p>
<p>In summary, the research results point rather unanimously to the advantage for both children and parents with shared parenting. This is under the conditions that there are not particularly difficult conflicts to be overcome between the parents. A Canadian documentary film, Dad&#8217;s House &#8211; Mom&#8217;s House from the National Film Board of Canada,6 which also showed up in a search of the internet summaries and illustrates the knowledge of the situation very well, without bringing up all the studies which formed the basis for the researchers interviewed, parent&#8217;s and children&#8217;s comments.</p>
<p>The film is in English, in an easily digested and living form, and can be recommended to those who wish to orient themselves in this question.</p>
<p>The problem is now you understand, how much should we draw our conclusion from the North American research which has been summarised above. One can for example Lassbo (1994) be so careful that one in principal leaves the practical working social worker without anything to say. Once can also, which I suggest, choose to pay attention to the research that exists and come to the same conclusion as Coller (1988) that one in concrete cases should in the first instance try to bring about a smooth functioning shared parenting situation.</p>
<hr />
<h3 id="toc11">Footnotes</h3>
<p>[1] <em>The article &#8220;Separationsbarns boende&#8221; was originally published by Lars Tornstam in Nordisk Socialt Arbeid, 1996(3):193-203.</em><a href="http://www.soc.uu.se/plugins/pdfdownload.php?id=1207">http://www.soc.uu.se/plugins/pdfdownload.php?id=1207</a><br />
<em>This English translation by Dr. Mark Wood was published by the Australian Men’s Rights Agency:</em><a href="http://www.mensrights.com.au/dwelling.pdf">http://www.mensrights.com.au/dwelling.pdf</a></p>
<p>[2] This view of course doesn’t take in the longer historical perspective, where the man had custody and was the obvious care giver, with the exception of the period when the mother suckled/nursed the child. According to Magnus Eriksson’s landslag (constitution) from 1350, children born out of wedlock should after the first three years of nursing with the mother, stay with the father until the child was seven years of age. After this both parents were responsible for the child’s care. This law was in force, unchanged, for almost 300 years. (Vårdnadstvistutredningen, 1995).</p>
<p>[3] List of the advantages with shared care</p>
<ul>
<li>The children continue a daily life with both parents, and they consequently don&#8217;t become strangers to each other.</li>
<li>The children feel that it is &#8220;Just&#8221;: neither of the parents is favoured.</li>
<li>The children are less likely to feel guilty and/or to miss his father.</li>
<li>The children get to experience that they are loved and important to both parents, which strengthens self-confidence.</li>
<li>The boys continue to have a father as a role model for identification.</li>
<li>For small children with frequent changes can experience that they still live with both.</li>
<li>The children can feel that they contribute to the parents meeting and have a near and good cooperation.</li>
<li>There is no risk that contacts with either of the parents will cease in the teenage years.</li>
<li>It can feel good to &#8220;have a rest&#8221; from one of the parents (especially for teenagers).</li>
<li>A divorce is not experienced as a devastating loss, because the child has not lost any love and important person from their daily life. (Page 133)</li>
</ul>
<p>[4] In several countries, as well as several states in the United States courts have the possibility of deciding for shared care and shared parenting if they consider that this is best for the children &#8211; even if, either or both of the parents initially oppose this. If Vårdnadstvistutredningens (1995) goes through, the Swedish courts will also have the possibility of deciding on shared care and parenting even if one of the parents opposes it.</p>
<p>[5] Vårdnatstvistutredningen shows that courts in many countries regularly research the children&#8217;s choice. Sometimes this research is connected to the children&#8217;s age. In Iceland a child&#8217;s choice is considered if they are 12 years of age or more. In Spain as in the Netherlands it always occurs if the child is 12 or more. In France the question is raised if the court decides it is suitable. Age is without importance but children under 7 are seldom investigated.</p>
<p>[6] The film can be ordered from NFB&#8217;s London Office; National Film Board of Canada, Grosvenor Square, London W1X OAB, England. Tel: 00944-71 258 6482. Fax: 009944-71 258 6532.</p>
<hr />
<h3 id="toc12">References:</h3>
<ul>
<li>Abarbanel, A. (1979) Shared parenting after separation and divorce: A study of joint custody, <em>American Journal of Orthopsychiatry</em>, 49:320-329.</li>
<li>Braver, S. (1995) Paper delivered at <em>Children&#8217;s Rights Council 9th Annual Conference</em>, Bethseda, MD, March 30-April 2, 1995.</li>
<li>G.M. Bredefeld, G.M. (1985) <em>Joint Custody and Remarriage: its effects on marital adjustment and children</em>, Doctoral Thesis, California School of Professional Psychology, Fresno. UMI No. 85-10926</li>
<li>Coller, D. (1988) <em>Joint Custody: Research, Theory, and Policy</em>, Family Processes 27:459-469.</li>
<li>Cowan, D.B. (1982) <em>Mother Custody versus Joint Custody: Children‘s parental Relationship and Adjustment</em>, Doctoral Thesis, University of Washington. UMI No. 82-18213.</li>
<li>Emery, R., Hetherington, E.M., DiLalla, L. (1984) Divorce, children, and social policy, in Stevenson, H.W., Siegel, A.E. (eds) <em>Child development research and social policy</em>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li>
<li>Friedman, R. (1994) Joint Physical Custtody Really Can Work, <em>Michigan Bar Journal</em>, pp 650-652.</li>
<li>Furstenberg, F.F.,Jr., Nord, C.W. (1985) Parenting apart: Patterns of childrearing after marital disruption, <em>Journal of Marriage and the family</em>, 47:893-904.</li>
<li>Goldstein, J., et.al. (1973) <em>Beyond the best interest of the child</em>, New York; Free Press.</li>
<li>Handley, S. (1985) <em>The experience of the latency age child in sole and joint custody: A report on a comparative study</em>, Doctoral dissertation. California Graduate School of Marriage and Family Therapy.</li>
<li>Hanson, S.M.H. (1985) Healthy single parent families, <em>Family Relations</em> 35:125-132.</li>
<li>Irving, H.H., Benjamin, M., Trocme, N. (1984) Shared Parenting: An empirical analysis utilizing a large data base, <em>Family Processes</em>, 23:561-569.</li>
<li>Karp, E.B. (1982) <em>Children`s adjustment in joint and single custody: An Empirical Study</em>. Doctoral thesis, California school of professional psychology, Berkeley. UMI No. 83-6977.</li>
<li>Kelly, J.B. (1981) Visiting after divorce: Research findings and clinical implications, in Abi, L.E., Stuarts, I.R. (eds) <em>Children of separattion and divorce: Management and treatment</em>, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.</li>
<li>Kline, M., Tschann, J.M, Johnston, J.R., Wallersttein, J.S. (1989) Children’s Adjustment in Joint and Sole Physical Custody Families, <em>Developmental Psycholgy</em> 25(3):430-438.</li>
<li>Lassbo, G. (1994) Enföräldersfamilj &#8211; utvecklingsmiljö, <em>Socialvetenskaplig tidskrift</em> 2-3:130-145.</li>
<li>Leff, R. (1995) Joint Custody: Implications For Women, <em>Journal of the Phillips Graduate Institute</em>, Vol 4.</li>
<li>Luepnitz, D.A. (1982) <em>Child custody: A study of families after divorce</em>, Lexington, M.A.: Lexington Books.</li>
<li>Luepnitz, D.A. (1986) A comparison of maternal, paternal, and joint custody: Understanding the varieties of post-divorce family life, <em>Journal of Divorce</em>, 9(3):1-12.</li>
<li>E.E. Maccoby, E.E., Mnookin, R.H., Depner, C.E. (1986) Post-divorce families: Custodial arrangements compared, <em>American Association of Science</em>, Philadelphia.</li>
<li>Noonan, L.P. (1984) <em>Effects of long-term conflict on personality functioning of children of divorce, Doctoral thesis</em>, The Wright Institute Graduate School of Psychology, Berkeley. UMI No. 84-17931.</li>
<li>Nunan, S.A. (1980) <em>Joint custody versus single custody effects on child development</em>, Doctoral thesis, California School of Professional Psychology, Berkeley, UMI No. 81-10142.</li>
<li>Parish, T.S. (1987) Are They Affected by Parental Divorce and Remarriage, <em>Journal of Social Behavior and Personality</em>, 4:559-562.</li>
<li>Pojman, E. (1982) <em>Emotional adjustment of boys in sole custody and joint custody compared with adjustment of boys in happy and unhappy marriages</em>. Los Angeles: California Graduate Institute, Doctoral dissertation.</li>
<li>Risman, B. (1986) Can men mother? Life as a single father, <em>Family Relations</em>, 35:95-102.</li>
<li>Schildt, R. (1994) Fatherlessness, World Wide Web: <em>Men&#8217;s Issues Page</em>.</li>
<li>Shiller, V. (1984) <em>Joint and Maternal Custody: The outcome for boys aged 6-11 and their parents</em>, Doctoral thesis, University of Delaware. UMI No. 85-11219.</li>
<li>Shiller, V. (1986 a) Loyalty conflicts and family relationships in latency age boys: A comparison of joint and maternal custody, <em>Journal of Divorce</em> 9:17-38.</li>
<li>Shiller, V. (1986 b) Joint versus maternal custody for families with latency age boys: Parent characteristics and child adjustment, <em>American Journal of Orthopsychiatry</em> 56:486-489.</li>
<li>Steinman, S. (1981) The experience of children in a joint-custody arrangement, <em>American Journal of Orthopsychiatry</em>, 51:403-414.</li>
<li>Wallerstein, J., Kelly, J.B. (1980) <em>Surviving the breakup: How children and parents cope with divorce</em>, New York: Basic Books.</li>
<li>Warshak, R.A., Santrock, J.W. (1983) The impact on divorce in father-custody and mother-custody homes. The childs perspective, in Kurdek (ed.) <em>Children and divorce</em>, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.</li>
<li>Welsh-Osga, B. (1981) <em>The effects of custody arrangements on children of divorce</em>, Doctoral thesis, University of South Dakota. UMI No. 82-6914.</li>
<li>Wolchik, S. A., Braver S. L.,Sandler I.N. (1985) <em>J. of Clinical Child Psych</em> 14:5-10.</li>
<li>Vårdnadstvistutredningen: Vårdnad boende umgänge (SOU 1995:79).</li>
<li>Öberg, B., Öberg, G. (1985) <em>Den delade familjen</em>, Stockholm: Pedagogiska institutionen, Stockholms universitet, Forskningsrapport nr 26.</li>
<li>Öberg, B., Öberg, G. (1987) <em>Skiljas &#8211; men inte från barnen</em>, Stockholm: Natur och Kultur.</li>
<li>Öberg, B., Öberg, G. (1992) <em>Pappa, se mig! Om förnekade barn och maktlösa fäder</em>. Stockholm: Förlagshuset Gothia. Utgiven i samarbete med Rädda Barnen.</li>
</ul>
<hr />Translated and Distributed by Men&#8217;s Rights Agency<br />
P.O. Box 28, Waterford Q 4133 Australia<br />
Tel: 07 3805 5611 Fax: 07 3200 8769<br />
Email: <span style="visibility:visible;"><a href="mailto:mra@ecn.net.au">mra@ecn.net.au</a></span><br />
Website: <a href="http://www.mensrights.com.au" target="_blank">www.mensrights.com.au</a></p>
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